United States occupation of Haiti facts for kids
Quick facts for kids United States occupation of Haiti |
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| Part of the Banana Wars | |||||||
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Top to bottom, left to right: United States Marines in 1915 defending entrance gate in Cap-Haïtien, U.S. Marines and a Haitian guide patrolling the jungle during the Battle of Fort Dipitie, U.S. Navy Curtiss HS-2Ls and other airplanes in Haiti circa 1919 |
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| Belligerents | |||||||
 United States Haitian government |
 Haitian rebels |
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| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
| Woodrow Wilson Warren G. Harding Calvin Coolidge Herbert Hoover Franklin D. Roosevelt Smedley Butler Kemp Christian Gerald C. Thomas Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave Louis Borno Louis Eugène Roy Sténio Vincent |
Josaphat Jean-Joseph Charlemagne Péralte Benoît Batraville |
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| Strength | |||||||
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First Caco War: 1,500 U.S. soldiers 2,700 Haitian Gendarmes |
First Caco War: 5,000 |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||
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First Caco War: 28+ Americans killed, total unknown 70+ Gendarmes killed, total unknown |
First Caco War: 2,000+ killed |
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| 3,250–15,000 Haitian deaths Hundreds to 5,500 forced labor deaths |
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The United States occupation of Haiti began on July 28, 1915. About 330 US Marines landed in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. This happened after the National City Bank of New York convinced US President Woodrow Wilson to take control of Haiti's money and government.
The US invasion and takeover were pushed by American businesses in Haiti. The National City Bank of New York even held back money from Haiti. They also paid rebels to cause trouble in the country. This was done to make the US step in. The invasion in July 1915 followed years of problems in Haiti. These problems ended when Haiti's President Vilbrun Guillaume Sam was killed by angry rebels. The occupation ended on August 1, 1934. President Franklin D. Roosevelt agreed to pull out the troops. The last Marines left on August 15, 1934. They formally handed over power to the Gendarmerie of Haiti, a police force created by the US.
During this time, Haiti had three new presidents. But the US military, led by Marines and the Haitian police, truly ruled the country. They used martial law, which means military rule. Two big rebellions happened, leading to thousands of Haitians being killed. There were also many human rights problems caused by the Marines and police. The US also used a system called corvée, which was forced labor. This was for huge building projects and led to hundreds or thousands of deaths. Most Haitians stayed poor during the occupation. American military officers earned very high salaries. The US also gave power back to a small group of wealthy Haitians. These were often mulatto Haitians, who had French culture.
Contents
Why the US Got Involved in Haiti
The relationship between Haiti and the United States started in the early 1700s. Some Haitians fought with Americans in the American Revolutionary War. Haiti was once the richest French colony in the Americas, called Saint-Domingue. But a slave revolt began in 1791. This led to the successful Haitian Revolution in 1804. This scared people in the Southern United States who supported slavery. They worried it would inspire their own slaves.
This fear made relations between the US and Haiti difficult. The US at first refused to recognize Haiti's independence. Slave owners wanted a trade embargo against the new Caribbean nation. In 1825, France forced Haiti to pay a huge debt. This was because France lost money when Haiti became independent. This meant Haiti used most of its money to pay foreign debts by the late 1800s.
The United States had wanted to control Haiti for many years after Haiti became independent. In 1868, President Andrew Johnson wanted to take over Hispaniola, which includes Haiti. This was to protect US defenses and money in the West Indies. In 1890, the Môle Saint-Nicolas affair happened. President Benjamin Harrison wanted to lease a port called Môle-Saint-Nicolas to the US. He sent a naval fleet to Haiti to demand this. This use of military force to pressure a country is called gunboat diplomacy.
Haiti's President Florvil Hyppolite refused the deal. Haitians were angry about the US ships. An American newspaper wrote that Haitians saw it as a threat. When the US admiral returned in 1891, he said Haiti would face more problems. He suggested future Haitian governments would have to agree to US demands.
By the 1890s, Haiti bought most of its goods from the US. It sold most of its products to France. The Roosevelt Corollary also affected Haiti's ties with the US. By 1910, President William Howard Taft tried to bring American businesses to Haiti. He wanted to reduce European influence. He also gave Haiti a large loan to pay off foreign debts. But this loan was not enough because the debt was so big.
German Influence in Haiti
The United States was not worried about France's influence in Haiti. But Germany's influence was a concern. Germany had interfered in Haiti before, like in the Lüders affair in 1897. Germany had also been influencing other Caribbean nations. Germany was becoming more against the US controlling the region under the Monroe Doctrine.
The US worried about Germany's plans. American businessmen also had rivalries with the small German community in Haiti. In 1910, there were only about 200 Germans. But they had a lot of economic power. German people controlled about 80% of Haiti's international trade. They owned power companies in Cap-Haïten and Port-au-Prince. They also owned the main port and a tramway in the capital. They had built a railway too.
Germans were more willing to mix with Haitian society than other foreigners. Some Germans married into important Haitian families of mixed African and French descent. This helped them get around a rule that stopped foreigners from owning land. German residents kept strong ties to their home country. They sometimes helped German military and spy networks in Haiti. They also helped fund Haiti's many revolutions. They gave loans at high interest rates to the different political groups.
Before World War I, Haiti's location was important. German influence there worried President Wilson. He feared Germany would have a presence near the Panama Canal Zone.
Haiti's Unstable Government
In the early 1900s, Haiti had many government problems. It was also deeply in debt to France, Germany, and the United States. Much of this instability was caused by other countries interfering. The Wilson government saw Haiti's problems as a threat to US safety. Political tensions were often between two groups. One was wealthy, French-speaking mulatto Haitians, a small part of the population. The other was poor Afro-Haitians who spoke Haitian Creole.
Different rebel armies caused these changes in power. These armies were made of cacos. These were peasant fighters from the northern mountains. They stayed near the Dominican Republic border. Foreign governments often paid them to start revolts.
Between 1911 and 1915, Haiti had seven presidents. This was due to killings, coups (when a group takes power by force), and forced exiles.
American Money Interests in Haiti
Before the US stepped in, Haiti's large debt was 80% of its yearly income. But Haiti was still able to pay its debts. This was better than some other countries at that time. In the 20th century, the US became Haiti's biggest trade partner. American businesses grew in Haiti. Germans in Haiti were seen as a threat to American money interests. Businesses started to push for the US to invade Haiti.
In 1903, Haitian officials accused the National Bank of Haiti of fraud. By 1908, Haiti's Finance Minister wanted the bank to work for Haitians. But French officials started planning to change their money interests.
US businesses had wanted to control Haiti for years. In 1909, Frank A. Vanderlip, the new president of National City Bank of New York, planned to take over Haiti's finances. This was part of his plan to make the bank grow internationally. The Haitian government had problems with the National City Bank over a railroad. This led the bank to try and control all of Haiti's money. From 1910 to 1911, the United States Department of State supported American investors. They were led by the National City Bank of New York. They bought a large share of the National Bank of Haiti. This created the Bank of the Republic of Haiti (BNRH). The new bank often held back payments from the Haitian government, causing unrest. France also kept a share in the BNRH. The BNRH was Haiti's only commercial bank and held the government's money.
US officials in the Wilson government did not know much about Haiti. They often got information from American businessmen. United States Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan fired his Latin American experts. He replaced them with political friends. Bryan first suggested forgiving the debts of Caribbean nations. But President Wilson thought this was too extreme. Bryan then relied on Roger Farnham, a vice president at National City Bank, for information about Haiti. Farnham had a lot of experience working between the US and the Caribbean. He was seen by some as the main person planning the US intervention in 1915.
Throughout the 1910s, Farnham demanded that Haitian governments let him control the nation's customs. Customs were Haiti's only source of income. He threatened US intervention if Haiti refused, saying it was against Haiti's independence.
In 1914, National City Bank and BNRH started a plan to cause problems in Haiti. This was to pressure the US to intervene. France was losing its ties to Haiti because it was focused on World War I. Farnham told the US Congress that BNRH's "active management has been from New York." An official from BNRH later said that if the US took over Haiti, National City Bank should buy all shares of BNRH. He believed it would make a lot of money.
Farnham convinced Secretary Bryan to invade Haiti in a phone call on January 22, 1914. Farnham said Haiti was not getting better due to constant internal conflict. He claimed Haitians did not care about the revolts. He also said American troops would be welcomed. Farnham also made up stories about European influence. He even convinced Bryan that France and Germany were working together to get a harbor in northern Haiti. These two nations were actually at war with each other. Farnham said Haiti would not improve "until some stronger outside power steps in." US diplomats then made plans to take over Haiti's money, called the "Farnham Plan."
After US officials went to Haiti to propose the "Farnham Plan," Haitian lawmakers were angry. They said their foreign affairs minister was "trying to sell the country to the United States." Because Haitians were against the plan, the BNRH held back money from the Haitian government. It also funded rebels to cause problems. This was to justify US intervention. The bank made a lot of money by holding onto these funds. On January 27, 1914, Haitian President Michel Oreste was removed from power in a coup. Two generals took control. In response, the USS Montana sent Marines into Port-au-Prince on January 29. This was to protect American interests. French and British ships also landed troops, but they left a few days later.
In the summer of 1914, the BNRH threatened to stop payments to the Haitian government. At the same time, Secretary Bryan told the US consul in Cap-Haïtien that the US agreed to invade Haiti. He said the US "strongly wants to carry out Farnham's plan."
American bankers worried that Haiti would not pay its debts. This was despite Haiti always paying its loans on time. They called for the US to take over Haiti's national bank. National City Bank officials demanded military support to take Haiti's gold reserves. They said Haiti was too unstable to protect its money. On December 17, 1914, eight US Marines walked into Haiti's national bank. They took about US$500,000 in gold, which is about equivalent to $13,526,578 in 2021 today. The Marines packed the gold into boxes. They loaded them onto a wagon and took the gold to the USS Machias. This ship then took the gold to the National City Bank's vault in New York City. Taking the gold gave the US a lot of control over the Haitian government. But American businesses wanted even more control. National City Bank made huge profits in the 1920s from Haiti's debt payments. These payments made up 25% of Haiti's income. This was about five times more than Haiti's public school funding.
The American Invasion of Haiti
In February 1915, Vilbrun Guillaume Sam became President of Haiti. His harsh rule ended on July 27, 1915. He ordered the killing of 167 political prisoners. This included a former president. This made the people furious. They rose up against Sam's government when they heard the news. Sam hid in the French embassy. But an angry crowd found him and killed him.
The US saw this anti-American revolt as a threat to its businesses in Haiti. Especially the Haitian American Sugar Company (HASCO). When the caco-supported Rosalvo Bobo seemed likely to become the next president, the US government decided to act fast. They wanted to keep their economic power.
In April 1915, Secretary Bryan told President Wilson he supported invading Haiti. He wrote that American businesses wanted to buy a controlling share of the bank. They would do this if the US government protected them. He said no protection would be enough without controlling the Customs House.
On July 28, 1915, US President Woodrow Wilson ordered 330 US Marines to take over Port-au-Prince. The Secretary of the Navy told the invasion commander to "protect American and foreign" interests. Wilson also wanted to change the Haitian constitution. It had a rule against foreigners owning land. He wanted to change it to allow American financial control. To avoid public criticism, Wilson said the occupation was to "re-establish peace and order." He claimed it had nothing to do with past or future diplomatic talks. Only one Haitian soldier tried to fight the invasion. He was shot by the Marines.
The American Occupation of Haiti
Haitian presidents were not chosen by all citizens. They were picked by the Senate. So, the American forces looked for a president who would work with them. Philippe Sudré Dartiguenave was the president of the Senate. He was part of the wealthy mulatto Haitian elite who supported the US. He agreed to become president of Haiti in August 1915. Other candidates had refused. The US later put more wealthy mulatto Haitians into powerful positions.
US Takes Over Haitian Government
For many years, the Haitian government had received large loans from American and French banks. With all the political chaos, Haiti was finding it harder to pay its debts. If the anti-American government of Rosalvo Bobo took power, there was no guarantee of debt repayment. American businesses refused to keep investing there. Within six weeks of the occupation, US government officials took control of Haiti's customs houses and government offices. This included the banks and the national treasury. Under US control, 40% of Haiti's national income was used to pay debts to American and French banks.
In September 1915, the US Senate approved the Haitian-American Convention. This was a treaty that gave the US security and economic control over Haiti for 10 years. Haiti's lawmakers at first refused to approve the treaty. But Admiral Caperton threatened to stop payments from Haiti until the treaty was signed. The treaty gave the US President the power to appoint officials. These included a customs receiver general, economic advisors, and public works engineers. It also allowed American military officers to oversee a Haitian police force. The US Department of State oversaw Haiti's money. The United States Navy was in charge of building projects and healthcare. But the Navy ended up having more power. US officials then had veto power over all government decisions in Haiti. Marine Corps commanders acted as administrators in Haiti's regions. The original treaty was for ten years. But an agreement in 1917 expanded US power for twenty years. For the next nineteen years, US State Department advisors ruled Haiti. The US Marine Corps enforced their authority.
The Gendarmerie of Haiti, now called the Garde d'Haïti, was also created and controlled by US Marines. It was first led by Major Smedley Butler. Admiral Caperton ordered his 2,500 Marines to occupy all of Haiti's districts. They had airplanes, cars, and trucks. Five airfields were built, and at least three airplanes were in Haiti. Marines had many duties in their districts. These included law enforcement, tax collection, giving out medicine, and overseeing arbitration (solving disagreements).
Haiti's government needed American approval for most projects. The 1915 treaty with the US was expensive. The Haitian government had so little money that it was hard to hire public workers. Before using any money, the Haitian government needed approval from an American financial advisor. By 1918, Haiti needed American officials to approve any laws. This was because they feared breaking the treaty.
First Caco War
The US putting a president in power without Haitians' consent led to problems. Also, the forced labor system, called corvée, made Haitians feel like they were returning to slavery. This caused opposition to the US occupation right away. Rebel groups of Haitians formed. These rebels were called "cacos," after a local bird known for its ambush tactics. They strongly resisted American control. The US and Haitian governments started a strong campaign to destroy the rebel armies. Major Smedley Butler, a Marine, was awarded a Medal of Honor for his actions. He was put in charge of the Haitian police force. He later said he disagreed with the US intervention in his 1935 book War Is a Racket.
On November 17, 1915, the Marines captured Fort Rivière. This was a main base for the Cacos rebels. This marked the end of the First Caco War. The US military gave out two Haitian Campaign Medals to US Marine and Naval personnel for their service in Haiti.
US Forces New Haitian Constitution
Soon after putting Dartiguenave in as president, President Wilson wanted to rewrite the Constitution of Haiti. A main concern for the US was that Haiti's constitution banned foreigners from owning Haitian land. An early Haitian leader had forbidden foreign land ownership when Haiti became independent. This was to stop foreign influence. Since 1804, some Haitians saw foreign ownership as a terrible thing.
President Dartiguenave feared being removed from office. Because of opposition from lawmakers, he ordered the Senate to be closed on April 6, 1916. Major Butler and Colonel Waller enforced new elections for lawmakers.
The newly elected Haitian lawmakers immediately rejected the constitution proposed by the US. Instead, they started writing their own constitution. This new constitution was against the interests of the United States. The US ordered President Dartiguenave to close the legislature in 1917. This happened after its members refused to approve the proposed constitution. Major Butler forced the closing of the Senate at gunpoint.
Haiti's new constitution was written under the watch of Franklin D. Roosevelt. He was then the Assistant Secretary of the Navy. A vote by the people in Haiti later approved the new constitution in 1918. The vote was 98,225 to 768. In Roosevelt's new constitution, Haiti clearly allowed foreigners to control Haitian land. This was the first time since Haiti became a country. Because Haiti opposed the US trying to rewrite its constitution, Haiti did not have a law-making body until 1929.
Second Caco War
The end of World War I in 1918 meant Haitians lost their main ally in the fight. Germany's defeat meant it was no longer a threat to the US in the Caribbean. But the US kept occupying Haiti after the war. This was despite President Woodrow Wilson saying he supported self-rule for other peoples at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919.
At one point, at least 20% of Haitians were involved in the rebellion against the occupation. The strongest period of unrest was a 1918 rebellion. Up to 40,000 former cacos and other opposition members were led by Charlemagne Péralte. The uprising was too big for the Haitian police. But US Marine reinforcements helped put down the revolt. Haitians used unusual tactics because they were much weaker than their occupiers. Before his death, Péralte launched an attack on Port-au-Prince. Péralte's killing in 1919 strengthened US Marine power over the Cacos. The Second Caco War ended with the death of Benoît Batraville in 1920. He had led an attack on the Haitian capital that year. About 2,004 cacos were killed in the fighting. Also, dozens of American Marines and Haitian police were killed.
US Congress Investigates
A group called L'Union Patriotique was made up of educated Haitians. They connected with people in the US who were against the occupation. They found allies in the NAACP and among both white and African-American leaders. The NAACP sent civil rights activist James Weldon Johnson to Haiti to investigate. He wrote about what he found in 1920. He spoke out against "the economic corruption, forced labor, press censorship, racial segregation, and violence" brought to Haiti by the US occupation. This encouraged many African Americans to send letters to the government. They called for an end to the problems and for troops to leave. Academic W. E. B. Du Bois, who had Haitian ancestors, demanded answers for the Wilson government's actions. He wrote that US troops "have no designs on the political independence of the island."
Based on Johnson's investigation, another NAACP leader wrote in a newspaper in 1920:
"Military camps have been built throughout the island. The property of natives has been taken for military use. Haitians carrying a gun were for a time shot on sight. Machine guns have been turned on crowds of unarmed natives, and United States Marines have, by accounts which several of them gave me in casual conversation, not troubled to investigate how many were killed or wounded."
Johnson said there was only one reason why the US occupied Haiti:
"[T]o understand why the United States landed and has for five years maintained military forces in that country, why some three thousand Haitian men, women, and children have been shot down by American rifles and machine guns, it is necessary, among other things, to know that the National City Bank of New York is very much interested in Haiti. It is necessary to know that the National City Bank controls the National Bank of Haiti and is the depository for all of the Haitian national funds that are being collected by American officials, and that Mr. R. L. Farnham, vice-president of the National City Bank, is virtually the representative of the State Department in matters relating to the island republic."
Two years after Johnson's findings, a US congressional investigation began in 1922. The report did not include what Haitians said. It ignored claims about National City Bank of New York and US Marines. Congress ended the report by saying the occupation of Haiti should continue. They argued that Haiti would face "chronic revolution, anarchy, barbarism, and ruin" if the US left. Johnson called the investigation a "whitewash," meaning it covered up the truth.
Borno Becomes President
In 1922, Dartiguenave was replaced by Louis Borno. The US-appointed General John H. Russell, Jr. became the High Commissioner. General Russell worked for the US Department of State. He was allowed to carry out the treaty's work.
National City Bank Buys BNRH
On August 17, 1922, National City Bank fully bought BNRH. Its main office moved to New York City. Haiti's debt to France was now owed to American investors. After buying BNRH, National City Bank's employee magazine in November 1922 said, "Bank of Haiti is Ours!" One professor said this control meant Haiti lost its independence. He said it was like returning to being a colony.
Forced Labor and Economy
The Borno-Russell government used forced labor to grow the economy and build things. Sisal was brought to Haiti as a crop to sell. Sugar and cotton also became important exports. But efforts to grow commercial farming did not work very well. This was partly because many Haitian workers went to work in the sugar industries of Cuba and the Dominican Republic. About 30,000–40,000 Haitian workers went to Cuba each year between 1913 and 1931. The Great Depression badly affected the prices of Haiti's exports. This destroyed the small gains of the previous ten years. Under press laws, Borno often put newspaper writers in jail who criticized his government.
Les Cayes Incident
President Herbert Hoover was feeling more pressure about the effects of occupying Haiti. He started looking into how to leave. By 1929, Haitians were angry with the Borno-Russell government and the American occupation. Demands for direct elections grew. In early December 1929, protests against the American occupation began at a main agricultural school. On December 6, 1929, about 1,500 Haitians were peacefully protesting local economic problems in Les Cayes. US Marines fired on them. This resulted in 12 to 22 Haitians dead and 51 injured. This event caused international outrage. President Hoover called on Congress to investigate conditions in Haiti the next day.
Forbes Commission and Borno's Resignation
President Hoover later appointed two groups to investigate. One was led by William Cameron Forbes, a former US governor of the Philippines. The commission arrived in Haiti on February 28, 1930. President Hoover wanted them to figure out "when and how we are to withdraw from Haiti." The Forbes Commission praised the improvements the US had made. But it criticized that Haitians were still not allowed to hold real power in the government and police. The commission said that the problems that caused instability still remained. These were "poverty, ignorance, and the lack of a tradition or desire for orderly free government." The commission concluded that the occupation of Haiti was a failure. They said the US did not "understand the social problems of Haiti."
With more calls for direct elections, US officials feared violence if demands were not met. An agreement was made for President Borno to resign. Haitian banker Louis Eugène Roy was made an interim president. The Forbes Commission suggested Roy would be elected by Congress. He would serve until a direct election for Congress was held, then he would resign. US officials said that if Congress refused, Roy would be forced into power.
Vincent Becomes President
The US was ordered not to interfere with elections. They watched elections on October 14, 1930. These elections resulted in Haitian nationalist candidates being elected. Sténio Vincent was elected President of Haiti by the Congress of Haiti in November 1930. The new nationalist government had a difficult relationship with American officials. By the end of 1930, Haitians were being trained by Americans for government jobs in their own country. When more American commissions arrived in Haiti, public unrest broke out. President Vincent made a secret agreement to ease tensions with the US. In exchange, he gave more power to American officials to carry out their "Haitianization" policies.
Franklin D. Roosevelt, who as Assistant Secretary of the Navy said he helped write the 1918 constitution, supported the "Good Neighbor policy" for the US in the Caribbean and Latin America. The US and Haiti agreed on August 7, 1933, to end the occupation. On a visit to Cap-Haïtien in July 1934, Roosevelt confirmed the agreement to leave. The last US Marines left on August 15, 1934. They formally handed over power to the Garde. The US kept influence over Haiti's money until 1947. This was part of the 1919 treaty that required an American financial advisor for the life of Haiti's loan.
Effects of the Occupation
Economy and Daily Life
The occupation was expensive for the Haitian government. American advisors collected about 5% of Haiti's income. The 1915 treaty with the US limited Haiti's money. This meant fewer government jobs. Many farm changes happened, including bringing in sisal. Sugarcane and cotton became important exports, helping the economy. But efforts to grow commercial farming did not work very well. American farming businesses took land from thousands of Haitian farmers. They used it to grow bananas, sisal, and rubber for export. This led to less food being grown for Haitians to eat.
Haitian traditionalists, mostly in rural areas, strongly resisted US-backed changes. The wealthy city people, often of mixed race, welcomed the growing economy. But they wanted more political control. After the occupation ended in 1934, Haiti still had debts. An American financial advisor managed the budget until 1941. Haiti's loan debt to the US was about 20% of the nation's yearly income.
Formal American influence on Haiti's economy ended in 1947. The United Nations and the US Department of State reported at that time that Haitian rural farmers, who were 90% of the population, lived "close to starvation level."
Buildings and Roads
The occupation improved some of Haiti's infrastructure (buildings and roads). It also put more power in Port-au-Prince. But much of the money collected by the US was not used to modernize Haiti. Forced labor of Haitians, managed by the US-controlled police, was used for building projects. This was especially for roads. Forced labor led to the deaths of hundreds to thousands of Haitians.
Improvements included making 1,700 kilometres (1,100 mi) of roads usable. Also, 189 bridges were built. Irrigation canals were fixed. Hospitals, schools, and public buildings were constructed. Drinking water was brought to the main cities. Port-au-Prince became the first Caribbean city to have phone service with automatic dialing. Farming education was set up, with a main agricultural school and 69 farms.
Most Haitians thought the public works projects by the US Marines were not good enough. American officers who controlled Haiti spent more on their own salaries than on the public health budget for two million Haitians. A 1949 report by the US Department of State said that newly built irrigation systems were "not in good condition."
Education System Changes
The United States changed Haiti's education system. It removed the liberal arts education that Haitians had from the French system. Instead, Americans focused on agricultural and vocational training. This was similar to how they taught minorities and immigrants in the US. A doctor was asked to check the agricultural school. He said its goals were good, but its performance was not. He also criticized the large amount of money it received compared to regular Haitian public schools, which were in poor condition.
Wealthy Haitians disliked the system. They believed it was unfair to their people. The mulatto elite also worried that an educated middle class would form. This could lead to them losing their influence.
Images for kids
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USS Philadelphia, a US Navy ship involved in the 1890 Môle Saint-Nicolas affair. The US used its navy to try and get control of Môle-Saint-Nicolas.
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People from the German Legation and the Hamburg-Amerika Line in 1900.
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Gold from Haiti was put onto the USS Machias by U.S. Marines and taken to 55 Wall Street in 1914.
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Marine base at Cap-Haïtien.
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King Armored Cars of the 1st Armored Car Squadron.
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President Borno on an official visit to the U.S. in 1926.
See also
In Spanish: Ocupación estadounidense de Haití para niños
