School integration in the United States facts for kids

An integrated classroom in Anacostia High School, Washington, D.C., in 1957

School integration, also called desegregation, is about ending racial segregation in schools across the United States. For a long time, schools were separated by race, meaning white students and Black students went to different schools. This separation was a big problem throughout American history and still affects education today. During the Civil Rights Movement, making schools integrated became a very important goal. While there was a lot of progress, some schools still face challenges with segregation.

School segregation decreased a lot in the late 1960s and early 1970s. However, since 1990, it seems that segregation has increased again in some areas. One of the biggest reasons for differences in how well white and Black students do in school is the difference in poverty levels at the schools they attend.

Understanding School Segregation

Early Steps Towards Integrated Schools

Some schools in the U.S. were integrated even before the mid-1900s. For example, Lowell High School in Massachusetts accepted students of all races from the very beginning. Its first known African American student, Caroline Van Vronker, attended in 1843. The idea of integrating all American schools was a major reason for the Civil Rights Movement and the racial violence that happened in the U.S. in the second half of the 20th century.

After the American Civil War, new laws were passed to give rights to African Americans. The Reconstruction Amendments (the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments), passed between 1865 and 1870, ended slavery, made sure all citizens were protected by law, and stopped racial discrimination in voting. In 1868, Iowa was the first state to desegregate its schools.

The Jim Crow Era

Even with these new amendments, unfair rules called Jim Crow laws were put in place. These laws forced African Americans to use separate park benches, drinking fountains, and train cars from white people. In 1896, the Supreme Court made a big decision in the case of Plessy v. Ferguson. They said that separate public places, like schools, were legal as long as they were equal in quality. This idea was called "separate but equal." This ruling made segregation in schools legal.

Black Schools and Their Challenges

Because of these unfair laws, special schools were created for African American children, known as black schools. With help from people like Julius Rosenwald and Black leaders like Booker T. Washington, these schools became important places in Black communities. Teachers in these schools were highly respected leaders. However, even though they were important, Black schools often received less money and had fewer resources than white schools. For example, a group called the General Education Board gave much less money to Black schools than to white schools between 1902 and 1918.

Fighting for Change in Court

In the first half of the 20th century, many tried to fight school segregation, but most attempts failed. One rare success was the Berwyn School Fight in Pennsylvania, where the NAACP helped the Black community integrate their local schools.

In the early 1950s, the NAACP filed lawsuits in several states to challenge school segregation. In 1954, the Supreme Court made a landmark decision in the Brown v. Board of Education case. They ruled that segregation in public schools was against the Constitution. The NAACP legal team, led by Thurgood Marshall (who later became a Supreme Court Justice), argued that separate schools could never truly be equal. They showed that segregated schools harmed Black students psychologically and that Black schools had worse facilities and paid teachers less. This strong evidence led to the unanimous decision.

First Reactions to Integration

The Little Rock Nine were nine African American students who tried to enroll in Little Rock Central High School in 1957. The governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, first stopped them from entering the school. But President Dwight D. Eisenhower stepped in, sending federal troops to protect the students and allow them to attend. After the Little Rock Nine, Arkansas saw some of the first successful school integrations in the South.

The Supreme Court's Brown v. Board of Education decision in May 1954 said that all laws creating segregated schools were unconstitutional. It called for all schools in the nation to desegregate. The NAACP then tried to register Black students in previously all-white schools. In Little Rock, the school board agreed to a plan for gradual integration.

The "Little Rock Nine" were chosen for their good grades and attendance. They were Ernest Green, Elizabeth Eckford, Jefferson Thomas, Terrence Roberts, Carlotta Walls LaNier, Minnijean Brown, Gloria Ray Karlmark, Thelma Mothershed, and Melba Pattillo Beals. One student, Minnijean Brown, was expelled for reacting to bullying. Ernest Green was the first Black student to graduate from Central High in May 1958.

When integration began on September 4, 1957, the Arkansas National Guard was called in. At first, they stopped the Black students from entering. But President Eisenhower ordered the National Guard and U.S. Army soldiers to protect the students. They escorted the nine students into the school every day.

Praise for the Decision

Important Black newspapers like the Chicago Defender and the Atlanta Daily World praised the Brown decision. They saw it as a huge step for racial equality and civil rights. The decision quickly helped start the push for equal rights in Southern communities. Less than a year after the Brown decision, the Montgomery bus boycott began, which was another key moment in the fight for African American civil rights. Today, Brown v. Board of Education is often seen as the beginning of the Civil Rights Movement.

By the 1960s and 70s, the Civil Rights Movement had gained a lot of support. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made segregation and discrimination illegal in public places, including schools. In 1971, the Supreme Court approved using busing to help schools desegregate, even if neighborhoods were still separated by race. By 1988, school integration was at its highest point, with nearly 45% of Black students attending schools that used to be all white.

Making Integration Happen

Brown II Decision

After Brown v. Board of Education said school segregation was unconstitutional, the Supreme Court discussed how to make it happen in a follow-up case called Brown II. The NAACP lawyers wanted schools to integrate right away. However, the Supreme Court gave a less clear order, saying schools should integrate with "all deliberate speed."

Challenges to Integration

Many white families found ways to avoid sending their children to integrated public schools. After the Brown decision, many moved from cities to suburbs, where schools were often wealthier and mostly white. This movement was called "white flight." For example, in Houston, Texas, the number of white students in public schools dropped significantly between 1970 and 1980.

Another way white families avoided integration was by taking their children out of public schools and enrolling them in new "segregation academies," which were private schools created to avoid integration. After a 1968 Supreme Court case sped up desegregation, private school attendance in Mississippi greatly increased.

In March 1970, President Richard M. Nixon said that the Brown decision was "right" and that he would enforce the law. He created a committee to help manage the change to desegregated schools.

Integrating Southern Universities

University of Georgia 1961

On January 6, 1961, a federal judge ordered Hamilton Holmes and Charlayne Hunter to be admitted to the University of Georgia. This ended 160 years of segregation at the school. The state had a law that would stop funding any school that admitted a Black student. After the two Black students were admitted, a mob gathered outside Hunter's dorm, causing damage and getting a lot of media attention. Even officials who had supported segregation spoke out against the rioters.

Georgia Tech 1961

Georgia Tech started planning its integration in January 1961, learning from the events at the University of Georgia. In May, President Edwin Harrison announced that three Black students would be admitted that fall. He said this decision was needed to avoid federal intervention and keep control over admissions. On September 27, Ford Greene, Ralph Long Jr., and Lawrence Michael Williams became the school's first Black students. They attended classes peacefully, making Georgia Tech the first university in the Deep South to integrate peacefully on its own.

University of Mississippi 1962

On September 30, 1962, white segregationists rioted at the University of Mississippi (Ole Miss) to protest James Meredith's admission. Meredith had won a legal battle with the help of the NAACP to attend the university. The riots led to two deaths and many injuries to U.S. Marshals.

President John F. Kennedy sent thousands of federal troops to the campus to stop the violence and ensure Meredith could register. This event was a turning point, showing many people that such violence was unacceptable. Escorted by federal marshals, James Meredith registered for classes and became the first Black student to graduate from Ole Miss in 1963.

Mercer University 1963

Mercer University was the first college in the Deep South to choose to desegregate on its own. On April 18, 1963, Mercer's Board of Trustees voted to accept all students based on their qualifications, without considering race. This allowed Sam Oni, a 22-year-old student from Ghana, to become the first Black student at Mercer University. Sam Oni intentionally applied to Mercer to help end racial segregation in the South. He succeeded despite pressure from segregationists.

University of Alabama 1956/1963

In 1956, Autherine Lucy was able to attend the University of Alabama after a court order. However, on her third day, students mobbed her, shouting hateful words. The university suspended Lucy "for her own protection." She later sued the university but lost, and the university expelled her.

In 1963, a federal court ruled that Vivien Malone and James Hood could enroll at the University of Alabama. The governor of Alabama, George Wallace, famously tried to block their entry by "standing in the schoolhouse door." Although he was eventually forced by federal troops to allow them in, Wallace became a symbol of resistance to desegregation.

Impact on Hispanic Populations

School integration policies also affected Hispanic populations. Historically, Mexican Americans were legally considered white. However, a group of Mexican-Americans in Corpus Christi, Texas, challenged this, as it led to discrimination. In Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District (1970), the court ruled that Hispanic Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority.

Some school districts used a loophole: if Hispanic students were considered white, a mostly Black school and a mostly Hispanic school could be combined and seem integrated, leaving white schools unchanged. This happened in the Houston Independent School District. In the early 1970s, thousands of Hispanic students boycotted their schools to protest this. In response, in September 1972, the Houston school board ruled that Hispanic students were an official ethnic minority, closing the loophole.

Effects on Today's Schools

Educational Outcomes

A study showing the gap between reading test scores of white and African-American students

Research shows that school integration helped Black students who attended integrated schools in the 1970s and 1980s. They achieved more in education and earned higher wages as adults. However, schools have started to become more segregated again since then.

Even in integrated public schools, some segregation still exists. For example, students might sit at separate lunch tables or join different after-school programs based on race. Also, a practice called tracking, where students are placed into different levels of classes (like regular or advanced), can lead to segregation. Often, minority students are placed in lower-level classes, while white students are in advanced classes.

The focus on standardized tests is also part of the discussion about race and education. The "achievement gap," which is the difference in test scores between white and Black students, got smaller until the mid-1980s but has not changed much since then.

Social Benefits

In 2003, the Supreme Court said that diversity in education is important. They noted that integrated classrooms help students become better citizens and leaders in a diverse country. Psychologists have studied the social benefits of integrated schools. They found that students in integrated schools are more tolerant and accepting of others from different racial backgrounds.

Related Court Cases

See also