Yan Xishan facts for kids
Quick facts for kids
Yan Xishan
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閻錫山
Yen Hsi-shan |
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Gen. Yan Xishan
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| President of the Republic of China | |
| Acting 20 November 1949 – 28 February 1950 |
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| Premier | Yan Hsi-shan |
| Preceded by | Li Zongren |
| Succeeded by | Chiang Kai-shek |
| Premier of the Republic of China | |
| In office 3 June 1949 – 7 March 1950 |
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| President | Li Zongren (acting) Yan Hsi-shan (acting) Chiang Kai-shek |
| Vice Premier | Chia Ching-teh Chu Chia-hua |
| Preceded by | He Yingqin |
| Succeeded by | Zhou Enlai (as Premier of the People's Republic of China) Chen Cheng |
| Personal details | |
| Born | 8 October 1883 Wutai County, Xinzhou, Shanxi, Qing Empire |
| Died | 22 July 1960 (aged 76) Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China |
| Political party | Kuomintang Progressive Party |
| Awards | Order of Blue Sky and White Sun Order of the Sacred Tripod Order of the Cloud and Banner Order of Rank and Merit Order of the Precious Brilliant Golden Grain Order of Wen-Hu |
| Nickname | "Model Governor" |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  Qing Empire Republic of China |
| Branch/service | .svg){kind=small} New Army National Revolutionary Army |
| Years of service | 1911–1949 |
| Rank |  General |
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| Traditional Chinese | 閻錫山 | ||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 阎锡山 | ||||||||
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Yan Xishan (born October 8, 1883 – died July 22, 1960) was a powerful Chinese leader. He was known as a warlord, which means he controlled a region with his own army. Yan Xishan effectively ruled the Shanxi province in China for many years. This was from the 1911 Xinhai Revolution until the Communists won the Chinese Civil War in 1949.
Yan Xishan was a skilled survivor. He managed to stay in power through many big changes in China. These included the Warlord Era, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the Chinese Civil War. He was seen as a leader who wanted to use modern ideas and technology. However, he also wanted to keep traditional Chinese ways. He made many changes in Shanxi that helped prepare the province for the future.
Contents
Early Life and Education
Where Was Yan Xishan Born?
Yan Xishan was born in Wutai County, Xinzhou, Shanxi, during the last years of the Qing dynasty. His family had been bankers and merchants for a long time. As a young man, he worked in his father's bank. He also studied traditional Chinese teachings at a local school.
After his family lost their money, Yan went to a free military school in Taiyuan. There, he learned about math, physics, and other Western subjects. In 1904, he went to Japan to study at a military academy. He graduated in 1909.
What Did Yan Learn in Japan?
Yan spent five years studying in Japan. He was very impressed by how Japan had modernized quickly. He saw how the Japanese, once thought of as behind, had made great progress. This made him worry about China falling behind the rest of the world. His time in Japan inspired him to modernize Shanxi later on.
Yan believed Japan succeeded because its government could get people to support its plans. He also saw a good relationship between the military and civilians. He thought Japan won the 1905 Russo-Japanese War because its people strongly supported the army. After returning to China, he warned that China needed to develop its own strong spirit to avoid being overtaken by Japan.
Joining the Revolutionaries
Even before going to Japan, Yan was upset by the corruption in Shanxi. He felt China was weak because the Qing dynasty did not like modern ideas or industrial growth. While in Japan, he met Sun Yat-sen and joined his Tongmenghui (Revolutionary Alliance). This group wanted to overthrow the Qing dynasty.
Yan tried to spread Sun's ideas by forming a "Blood and Iron Society" for Chinese students in Japan. Their goal was to create a strong, united China. Yan also joined a more daring group called the "Dare-to-Die Corps."
When Yan returned to China in 1909, he worked secretly to overthrow the Qing dynasty. During the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, he led local forces to remove Manchu troops from Shanxi. He declared Shanxi independent, saying the Qing had failed to protect China from foreign attacks. He also promised many social and political changes.
Leading Shanxi Province
Dealing with Yuan Shikai
In 1911, Yan wanted to team up with another revolutionary to challenge Yuan Shikai in northern China. However, their plans stopped when the other leader was killed. Yan was chosen as military governor. But he could not stop Yuan Shikai's troops from invading Shanxi in 1913.
Yan survived by moving north and joining a friendly group in a nearby province. He avoided a big fight with Yuan. Even though he was friends with Sun Yat-sen, Yan did not support him in the 1913 "Second Revolution." Instead, he made friends with Yuan, who let him return as military governor of Shanxi. After Yuan Shikai died in 1916, Yan took full control of Shanxi.
How Yan Modernized Shanxi
By 1911, Shanxi was one of China's poorest provinces. Yan believed he had to modernize its economy and buildings. Otherwise, other warlords would easily take over. After a military loss in 1919, Yan decided Shanxi was not strong enough to fight other warlords. He then made Shanxi neutral, keeping it out of the civil wars.
Instead of fighting, Yan focused on modernizing Shanxi and using its resources. His reforms were so successful that outsiders called him the "Model Governor." Shanxi became known as the "Model Province."
In 1918, a serious outbreak of bubonic plague happened in northern Shanxi. It killed many people. Yan dealt with it by teaching his officials about modern germ theory. He ordered people to isolate infected individuals to stop the spread. While some people resisted, his actions helped control the disease.
Yan was inspired by foreign doctors who helped with the plague. He saw their dedication and modern ideas. He compared them positively to his own officials. Conversations with famous reformers like John Dewey and Hu Shih also pushed him to modernize Shanxi.
Yan also tried to improve medicine in China. In 1921, he funded a school in Taiyuan that taught both Chinese and Western medicine. He wanted doctors to learn modern diagnosis, hygiene, and surgical skills. He hoped this would improve public health and trade in Chinese medicines.
Yan's Role in National Events
To keep Shanxi neutral, Yan often made alliances with different warlords. He usually joined the winning side. Even though he was weaker than many warlords, he often held the balance of power. Those he betrayed often hesitated to fight him, in case they needed his help later.
In 1927, Yan allied with Chiang Kai-shek during the Nationalists' Northern Expedition. Yan's forces helped capture Beijing in June 1928, ending the Northern Expedition successfully. For his help, Yan was made minister of the interior and deputy commander-in-chief of all Kuomintang armies. Chiang also recognized Yan as the governor of Shanxi.
The Central Plains War
Yan's alliance with Chiang Kai-shek ended in 1929. Yan joined Chiang's enemies, including warlords Feng Yuxiang and Li Zongren, to form a new government in northern China. Yan hoped to become president, with Wang Jingwei as his prime minister.
However, Chiang's forces defeated Feng's armies and invaded Shanxi. Yan's army was almost completely destroyed. Yan fled to Dalian in Japanese-held territory. He returned to Shanxi in 1931 after making peace with Chiang. Chiang's victory over Yan and Feng in 1930 is seen as the end of China's Warlord Era.
Yan's defeat was partly because Shanxi was not very populated or developed. This meant he could not raise a large, well-equipped army like Chiang's. Even so, Yan appeared on the cover of TIME Magazine as "China's Next President." This showed that many people thought he could lead China.
Returning to Shanxi Rule
Yan returned to Shanxi in 1931 with the help of Zhang Xueliang and the Japanese. Chiang Kai-shek did not stop him because he was busy fighting other warlords. When the central government failed to stop Japan from taking Manchuria, Yan's supporters used this chance to remove the Kuomintang from Shanxi.
In December 1931, students protested in Taiyuan against the government's inaction. The protest became violent, and police fired into the crowd. This "Massacre of December Eighteenth" angered the public. Yan's officials used this as an excuse to kick the Kuomintang out of the province. After this, the Kuomintang in Shanxi was loyal to Yan, not Chiang.
Chiang Kai-shek later allowed Yan to keep his title and appointed him to a central government commission. In 1934, Chiang visited Taiyuan and praised Yan's rule. This showed that Yan was still the true ruler of Shanxi.
Yan's Relationship with the Nationalists
After 1931, Yan continued to support the Nationalist government in name. But he kept real control over Shanxi. He worked with and fought against Communist agents in his province. Yan supported the 1936 Xi'an Incident, where Chiang was arrested. Chiang was released only when he agreed to team up with the Communists to fight Japan.
Yan worried about a Japanese invasion. He believed China should focus on fighting Japan, not the Communists. During the Xi'an Incident, Yan helped in the talks. He wanted to prevent Chiang's death and a civil war. He pushed for a united front against Japan.
Yan built many factories in Taiyuan, but he kept his success quiet from Chiang. He often asked the central government for money, but his requests were usually denied. When Yan refused to send salt taxes to the central government, Chiang flooded the market with cheap salt. This hurt Shanxi's salt trade.
Yan's Public Policies
Yan made many successful changes in Shanxi to strengthen his control. He supported traditional values but also criticized landowners for mistreating farmers. He started land reform to help farmers and weaken rivals.
Yan wanted his army to be seen as servants of the people, not masters. He created his own unique ideas, called "Yan Xishan Thought." He spread these ideas through village newspapers and traveling plays. He also set up a public education system. This helped train workers and farmers who could understand his ideas. These reforms were started early, showing they were not copied from later Communist programs.
Military Changes in Shanxi
When Yan returned from Japan in 1909, he believed strongly in a strong military. He wanted a system where all men had to join the army, like in Germany and Japan. But after Germany lost World War I and Yan lost a battle in 1919, he changed his mind. He reduced the size of his army to save money.
Later, he heard rumors of rival warlords planning to invade Shanxi. Yan then created a rural militia of 100,000 men. His soldiers were only from Shanxi. They also helped improve Shanxi's roads and assisted farmers. Unlike other armies, Yan's soldiers paid for what they took from civilians. This made his army much more popular.
Yan built a weapons factory in Taiyuan. It was the only place in China that could make field artillery. This factory helped Shanxi stay independent. While Yan's army was not always great at fighting other warlords, it was very good at stopping bandits. This helped keep Shanxi safe and orderly.
Social Reforms by Yan
Yan worked hard to get rid of old social traditions. He made all men in Shanxi cut off their long braids (queues) from the Qing era. Police would even cut them off if people refused. He tried to fight women's illiteracy by creating vocational schools for peasant girls. They learned basic education and home skills.
After 1925, Yan allowed girls to go to middle school and college. They quickly formed a women's association. Yan also tried to end foot binding. He threatened to punish men who married women with bound feet and mothers who bound their daughters' feet. He encouraged the use of the modern calendar and supported Boy Scout groups. Like the Communists, he made lawbreakers work in state factories.
Limits of Economic Reforms
Yan's efforts to boost Shanxi's economy mostly involved the government investing in many industries. He did not do much to encourage private businesses. While Shanxi's economy did improve, Yan himself did not have much training in economics. He also lacked experienced advisors. Many of his officials were from wealthy landowning families. They might have secretly worked against his reforms, preferring cheap labor from peasants.
Yan Xishan's Ideas
Yan tried to create a complete set of ideas, called "Yan Xishan Thought." He wanted to improve the morale and loyalty of his officials and the people of Shanxi. He once said his ideas combined the best parts of many different beliefs. He spread his ideas through groups called "Heart-Washing Societies."
Confucianism's Influence
Yan loved Confucianism because of his upbringing. He believed its values could bring order to China. He used Confucian ideas to justify his rule. He tried to bring back Confucian virtues, like moderation and harmony. Yan wanted to show he was a junzi, a perfect Confucian gentleman.
Yan's ideas about Confucianism came from the Neo-Confucianism popular during the Qing dynasty. He taught that everyone was born good. But to be truly good, people had to control their feelings and desires. He admired philosophers who believed in acting on intuition. He set up Heart-Washing Societies where people confessed their wrongdoings and got criticism from others.
Christianity's Influence
Yan thought Christianity made Western countries strong. He believed China needed a similar inspiring idea. He liked the work of American missionaries who ran schools in Taigu. He supported the local Christian church in Taiyuan. He even thought about having Christian chaplains in his army.
Yan designed his Heart-Washing Society to be like a Christian church. Meetings ended with hymns praising Confucius. He urged people to believe in a supreme being he called "Shangdi." He described Shangdi in ways similar to the Christian idea of God.
Chinese Nationalism's Influence
Yan came to power as a supporter of Chinese nationalism. But he later saw nationalism as just another tool to reach his goals. He said the Heart-Washing Society aimed to encourage Chinese patriotism by bringing back the Confucian church.
Yan changed some of Sun Yat-sen's ideas before spreading them in Shanxi. He replaced Sun's principles of nationalism and democracy with virtue and knowledge. During the 1919 May Fourth Movement, when students protested foreign influence, Yan warned that patriotism should be moderate.
After the Kuomintang formed a central government in 1930, Yan promoted Nationalist ideas he thought were good. In the 1930s, he tried to set up a "Good People's Movement" in every village. This was to promote values like honesty, hard work, and obedience.
Socialism and Communism's Influence
After his exile in 1931, Yan was impressed by the Soviet Union's economic success. He tried to reorganize Shanxi's economy using Soviet methods, with his own "Ten-Year Plan." By the late 1930s, he had brought most major industries under government control.
Yan's speeches after 1931 showed he understood Marxist economics. He tried to make Shanxi's economy more like the Soviets'. He wanted to get rid of "unearned profit" and reward only those who worked. Unlike Karl Marx, Yan believed there was a moral unity among people. He thought harmony was better than conflict. He hoped to create a more productive and peaceful society.
Yan saw Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal as a way to stop communism by having the government control the rich. Yan then started public works projects in Shanxi to reduce unemployment.
How Successful Were Yan's Ideas?
Despite his efforts, Yan's ideas were not widely popular in Shanxi. Most people did not believe his true goals were different from past rulers. Yan blamed his officials, saying they misused money for propaganda. He said they used language too hard for common people and acted like dictators. This made people lose faith in his ideas.
Challenges to Yan's Rule
Early Conflicts with Japan
Yan did not have serious problems with Japan until the early 1930s. While in exile in 1930, he learned about Japanese plans to invade Manchuria. He pretended to work with the Japanese to pressure Chiang Kai-shek to let him return to Shanxi. He then warned Chiang about Japan's plans.
Japan's success in taking Manchuria in 1931 scared Yan. He said a main goal of his Ten-Year Plan was to strengthen Shanxi's defense against Japan. In the early 1930s, he supported anti-Japanese protests. He called the Japanese occupation "barbarous" and "evil." He asked Chiang to send troops to Manchuria and armed fighters there.
In December 1931, Yan was warned that Japan would try to take Inner Mongolia. To stop this, he took control of Suiyuan province. He developed its large iron deposits and settled thousands of soldier-farmers there. When the Japanese-backed army invaded in 1935, Yan almost declared war. He became an "advisor" to a group fighting Japan.
The Japanese tried to make northern China "independent" in 1935. They thought Yan and other warlords would work with them. But Yan published a letter accusing Japan of wanting to conquer all of China. He likely used talks with Japan to scare Chiang into defending Shanxi. This worked, as Chiang promised to defend Shanxi if it was invaded.
Early Conflicts with Communists
Yan admired the Communists' ideas and economic methods. But he feared them almost as much as the Japanese. In the early 1930s, he saw that if the Red Army invaded Shanxi, most of his people would support them. He said stopping communism was mostly a political job, not just military.
To prevent a Communist threat, Yan sent troops to fight them in other provinces. He also organized anti-corruption and anti-Communist groups. He tried to do large-scale land reform, but mostly failed.
These reforms did not stop Communist guerrilla fighters from spreading into Shanxi. In February 1936, 34,000 Communist troops entered southwestern Shanxi. As Yan predicted, they were very popular. Even though they were outnumbered, they took control of a third of Shanxi in less than a month. The Communists used guerrilla warfare very well. They got help from local peasants to hide and find Yan's forces.
When central government troops forced the Communists to leave Shanxi, they split into small groups. Local supporters helped them hide. Yan admitted his troops fought poorly. The Nationalist forces that stayed in Shanxi did not like Yan's rule but did not interfere.
Invasion by Mengguguo
In March 1936, Japanese-backed troops from Inner Mongolia invaded Suiyuan, which Yan controlled. They took the city of Bailingmiao. Three months later, Prince De, the leader of the group, declared an independent Mongolia (Mengguguo). He built an army with Japanese help. In August 1936, Prince De's army tried to invade eastern Suiyuan but was defeated by Yan's forces.
To prepare for a Japanese invasion, Yan made all students get military training. He also formed a secret alliance with the Communists to fight Japan. In November 1936, Prince De's army demanded that Yan's general surrender. When he refused, Prince De's Mongolian and Manchurian armies launched a bigger attack. Their 15,000 soldiers had Japanese weapons and air support. Japanese officers often led them.
Japanese spies destroyed a large supply depot in Datong. Yan put his best troops and generals under the command of Fu Zuoyi. In a month of fighting, Prince De's army suffered heavy losses. Fu's forces retook Bailingmiao. Yan publicly accused Japan of helping the invaders. His victories were praised by Chinese newspapers and leaders.
Second Sino-Japanese War
During the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), most of Shanxi was quickly taken by the Japanese. But Yan refused to leave the province. He moved his headquarters to a remote area. He successfully resisted Japanese attempts to fully control Shanxi. The Japanese tried to make peace with Yan five times, hoping he would join them. But Yan refused and stayed with the Second United Front against Japan.
Working with Communists
After the Communists failed to set up bases in southern Shanxi in 1936, Yan saw them as less of a threat than the Nationalists or Japanese. He made a secret anti-Japanese alliance with the Communists in October 1936. After the Xi'an Incident, he helped convince Chiang to make a similar deal.
Yan then allowed Communist activities in Shanxi. He let Communist agents set up a secret headquarters in Taiyuan. He also released Communists he had in prison. Yan wanted to recruit young, patriotic thinkers to help resist Japan. Many anti-Japanese intellectuals came to Taiyuan and worked with Yan.
Early Battles of the War
In July 1937, after the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, Japan attacked Chinese forces near Beijing. Yan believed a Japanese invasion of Shanxi was coming. He flew to Nanjing to tell Chiang. Yan was then made commander of the Second War Zone, which included Shanxi.
Back in Shanxi, Yan told his officials to watch out for spies. He ordered his forces to attack Prince De's forces in northern China. The Mongolian and Manchu forces were quickly defeated. Japanese reinforcements suffered heavy losses. But strong Japanese firepower eventually forced Yan's forces to give up a key pass. The Japanese then quickly took Suiyuan and Datong.
As the Japanese moved south into Shanxi, Yan tried to make his army fight harder. He executed officers who retreated. He ordered his troops not to surrender and vowed to resist Japan. He asked the central government to take responsibility for Shanxi's defense. He also agreed to share control of the provincial government with Chiang's representative.
When it seemed his forces might not stop the Japanese, Yan invited Communist military forces back into Shanxi. Zhu De became commander of the Eighth Route Army in Shanxi. Yan welcomed the Communists, and his officials were enthusiastic. Communist forces arrived just in time to help defeat a strong Japanese force at the Battle of Pingxingguan.
After this, the Japanese outflanked the Chinese and moved towards Taiyuan. The Communists avoided big battles. They mostly harassed Japanese forces and sabotaged their supply lines. This gave the Communists time to recruit peasants. They organized local militias and groups. Japanese attacks on villages made many rural people turn to the Communists for leadership. Within a year, the Communists controlled most of Shanxi not held by the Japanese.
The Fall of Taiyuan
Yan improved his army's morale by executing commanders who retreated. At the Battle of Pingxingguan, Yan's troops fought hard. The Eighth Route Army attacked the Japanese from behind. Other units defended nearby passes. Even after the Japanese entered the Taiyuan Basin, they faced fierce resistance. At Yuanping, one of Yan's brigades held out for over a week. This allowed Nationalist reinforcements to set up defenses at the Battle of Xinkou.
During the Battle of Xinkou, Chinese defenders fought Japan's elite division for over a month. The Japanese had more artillery and air support. By late October 1937, Japan's losses were very high. Japanese reports called the battle a "stalemate." To save their forces, the Japanese attacked Shanxi from the east. They captured a key pass, opening the way to Taiyuan. Communist guerrilla tactics did not slow them down.
The defenders at Xinkou retreated south, past Taiyuan. A small force of 6,000 men stayed to hold off the entire Japanese army. A Japanese officer said that "nowhere in China have the Chinese fought so obstinately" in the final defense of Taiyuan. The Japanese lost 30,000 dead and many wounded trying to take northern Shanxi. Yan's army was almost completely destroyed. Many Communist leaders, including Mao Zedong, praised Yan for fighting Japan fiercely.
Yan's Authority Returns
Before losing Taiyuan, Yan moved his headquarters to Linfen. Japanese forces stopped their advance to fight Communist guerrillas. They told Yan they would destroy his forces but would treat him well if he helped them fight the Communists. Yan refused, repeating his promise not to surrender. He changed his army to fight guerrilla warfare. After 1938, his government was called a "guerrilla administration."
In February 1938, Japanese forces invaded Linfen. Yan's forces fought hard but had to retreat. Yan moved his army across the Yellow River to an area near the Communists' base. In spring 1938, the Japanese moved many forces away from Shanxi. Yan rebuilt his authority from a remote mountain area. His tactics became like the Communists' guerrilla warfare. His defenses involved working with both Communist and Nationalist forces.
Yan's alliance with the Communists eventually weakened. Tensions grew between Nationalists and Communists elsewhere in China. Yan began to fear the Communists' growing power in Shanxi. This made him more hostile to them. In October 1939, their good relations broke down. During a Nationalist offensive, Yan was seen as intentionally weakening the Communist-led "Shanxi New Army." In December 1939, these units rebelled against Yan. By February 1940, the fighting mostly stopped. Yan's "old" army controlled southern Shanxi. The Eighth Route Army controlled northwestern Shanxi. Central government forces controlled central Shanxi. Yan's forces continued to fight the Japanese in 1940.
Talking with the Japanese
In 1940, Yan's friend, Ryūkichi Tanaka, became chief of staff of the Japanese First Army in Shanxi. After Yan's dislike for the Communists became clear, Tanaka tried to get Yan to join an anti-Communist alliance with Japan. Yan agreed to send a representative to meet the Japanese. He got permission from the central government to negotiate. He wanted all Japanese troops to leave Shanxi in exchange for his help. But the Japanese did not agree to his demands, so Yan stopped the talks in December 1940.
Tanaka returned to Shanxi in May 1941 and reopened talks with Yan. In summer 1942, Yan told the Japanese he would help them fight the Communists. But he wanted them to remove many forces from Shanxi. He also asked for food, weapons, and a lot of money. When the Japanese sent their chief of staff to deliver what Yan asked for, Yan said the offers were not enough. He refused to negotiate. The Japanese felt tricked and humiliated.
After 1943, the Japanese tried to negotiate with Yan secretly through civilian friends. They reached an informal ceasefire. By 1944, Yan's troops were actively fighting the Communists, possibly with Japanese help. His relationship with Chiang Kai-shek also worsened. An American reporter in 1944 noted that the Japanese saw Yan as a middle ground between traitors and those who fully resisted.
Yan's Relationship with Japanese After 1945
After World War II ended in 1945, Yan Xishan did something unusual. He recruited thousands of Japanese soldiers and their officers who were in northwest Shanxi into his army. He used flattery, appeals to their ideals, and even bribes to convince them to stay. These Japanese soldiers were very important in keeping the area around Taiyuan free from Communist control for four years.
Yan kept the Japanese presence a secret from American and Nationalist observers. He would pretend to disarm Japanese soldiers for reporters, then give them their weapons back at night. He even called a group of armed Japanese troops "railway repair laborers" in official records. He then sent them to areas with no railway tracks but many Communist fighters.
By recruiting the Japanese, Yan kept the large industrial factories around Taiyuan running. He also kept the skilled Japanese managers and technicians. Japanese soldiers from other parts of northern China even came to Taiyuan to join Yan's army. At its peak, Yan had 15,000 Japanese "special forces" troops. This number dropped to 10,000 after American efforts to send them home. By 1949, only 3,000 Japanese soldiers remained. The leader of the Japanese under Yan, Imamura Hosaku, died the day Taiyuan fell to the Communists.
Chinese Civil War
After World War II, Yan's forces, including thousands of former Japanese troops, fought against the Communists for four years. This was during the Chinese Civil War. In April 1949, the Nationalist government lost control of northern China. This allowed the Communists to surround and attack Yan's forces. The area around Taiyuan, Shanxi's capital, was the last to fall.
The Shangdang Campaign
The Shangdang Campaign was the first major battle between Communist and Nationalist forces after World War II. Yan, with Chiang's approval, tried to take back control of southern Shanxi, where Communists were strong. If Yan and another general, Fu Zuoyi, had succeeded, they would have cut off the Communist headquarters.
The Communist commander, Liu Bocheng, decided to attack Yan's forces first. Liu's political leader was Deng Xiaoping, who later became a very important leader in China.
The fighting began on August 19, 1945. Yan sent 16,000 troops to capture the city of Changzhi. On September 1, Liu arrived with 31,000 troops and surrounded Changzhi. Yan's troops barricaded themselves inside the city.
Yan sent 20,000 more troops to help. Liu focused his forces on these reinforcements. The reinforcements were led into an ambush. Their leader was killed, and the army surrendered. When Yan's troops in Changzhi realized they had no help, they tried to escape but were caught and forced to surrender on October 10.
The Communists captured 31,000 of Yan's troops. Many of them later joined the Communists. The Shangdang Campaign ended with the Communists controlling southern Shanxi. This victory gave the Communists many more weapons, including artillery, for the first time. It also helped Mao Zedong negotiate from a stronger position in peace talks.
In 1946, the Communists aimed to capture Taiyuan, Yan's capital. Yan spent 1946 and 1947 trying to defend the north and retake the south. By winter 1947, his control was limited to northern Shanxi around Taiyuan. Yan prepared to defend Taiyuan to the death. He hoped the United States would join the war and save his forces.
The Taiyuan Campaign
By 1948, Yan's forces had suffered many defeats. They lost control of southern and central Shanxi. They were surrounded by Communist territory. Yan prepared Taiyuan by building over 5,000 bunkers. The Nationalist 30th Army was flown in to help defend the city. Taiyuan had over 600 pieces of artillery. Yan repeatedly said he would die in the city. There were 145,000 Nationalist troops in northern Shanxi.
The Communist commander, Xu Xiangqian, attacked positions outside Taiyuan first. Fighting began on October 5, 1948. By November 13, the Communists had taken the eastern side of Taiyuan. Many Nationalist divisions surrendered or switched sides. In one case, a Nationalist division pretended to surrender. They arrested the Communist officers who came to accept. Yan mistakenly thought one of the captured leaders was a high-ranking Communist. He sent them to Chiang Kai-shek, who executed them.
Between November 1948 and April 1949, the fighting stopped. The Communists used psychological tactics, like bringing relatives of the defenders to the front to ask them to surrender. This worked, and over 12,000 Nationalist soldiers surrendered.
After major Communist victories in January 1949, more troops and artillery reinforced the Communist armies in Shanxi. The Communists now had over 320,000 men. Yan Xishan had lost over 40,000 troops but tried to get more through forced recruitment.
Yan Xishan, along with most of the provincial treasury, was flown out of Taiyuan in March 1949. He wanted to ask the central government for more supplies. He left his son-in-law and the Japanese general Imamura Hosaku in charge. Soon after Yan left, Nationalist planes stopped dropping supplies to the defenders. They feared being shot down by the Communists.
The Communists launched a big attack on April 20, 1949. They used 1,300 pieces of artillery. By April 22, they had taken all positions around Taiyuan. The defenders refused to surrender. On the morning of April 22, 1949, the Communists heavily shelled Taiyuan. They broke through the city walls and fought street-to-street. By 10:00 a.m. on April 22, 1949, the Taiyuan Campaign ended. The Communists took complete control of Shanxi. All 145,000 Nationalist defenders were lost, many taken as prisoners. The Communists lost 45,000 men.
Later Life and Legacy
Premier of Republic of China
In March 1949, Yan flew to Nanjing, the capital, to ask for more supplies. He took most of Shanxi's money with him and did not return before Taiyuan fell. In Nanjing, Yan got involved in a disagreement between the acting president, Li Zongren, and Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang had resigned but still had much power and money. This power struggle hurt the effort to defend Nationalist territory.
Yan tried to get Li and Chiang to work together. He even cried trying to convince Li not to resign. He warned that the Nationalist cause was doomed if they did not cooperate. Li eventually tried to form a government with Yan as premier. But Chiang refused to let Li use much of his money. Officers loyal to Chiang would not follow Li's orders. This made it hard to coordinate defenses.
By late 1949, the Nationalists were in a desperate situation. Their money became almost worthless. Forces loyal to Li and Chiang refused to work together, leading to more losses. Yan's constant efforts to work with both sides made both Li and Chiang dislike him. The Communists took all mainland territory by the end of 1949. Li went into exile in the United States. Yan continued as Premier in Taiwan until 1950, when Chiang became president again.
Retirement in Taiwan
Yan's last years were sad. After following Chiang to Taiwan, he was called Chiang's "senior advisor" but had no real power. Chiang might have held a grudge against Yan for his actions in Guangdong. Yan asked to go to Japan many times but was not allowed to leave Taiwan.
Yan was left with only a few followers. He spent most of his time writing books on philosophy, history, and current events. He often had them translated into English. His later ideas were described as "anti-communist and anti-capitalist Confucian utopianism." Before the Korean War, Yan wrote a book predicting that North Korea would invade South Korea. He also predicted the United States would intervene, and Communist China would join North Korea. All these predictions came true during the Korean War.
Yan died in Taiwan on May 24, 1960. He was buried in the Qixingjun area of Yangmingshan. For decades, his home and grave were cared for by a few former aides. In 2011, the last aide was too old to care for the site. The Taipei City Government took over the responsibility.
Yan Xishan's Legacy
After the Chinese Civil War, Communist propaganda often portrayed Yan negatively. However, after 1979, with new reforms in China, he began to be seen more positively. He is now viewed more realistically as a practical hero who fought against the Japanese. The current Chinese government is starting to recognize his contributions.
Yan truly wanted to modernize Shanxi and had some successes. When the Communists forced him out, Shanxi was a major producer of coal, iron, chemicals, and weapons. Yan's support for Chinese medicine research helped create the modern traditional Chinese medicine system adopted in the 1950s. Throughout his rule, he promoted social changes that are now common. These included ending foot binding, women working outside the home, universal primary education, and peasant militias in the army. He was perhaps the warlord most dedicated to his province. However, his efforts were often hurt by his own lack of deep knowledge and his officials' selfishness.
Even though Yan always talked about reforms, he was too traditional until the 1930s to make the big changes Shanxi needed. Many of his reforms in the 1920s had been tried generations earlier and failed. In the 1930s, Yan became more open to radical social and economic policies. These included sharing wealth through taxes, government-led industry, and using Western technology. Despite adopting Soviet-style economic policies and radical social reforms, Yan was still seen as "conservative." This shows how complex the term "conservative" is in modern Chinese history.
After Yan's time, Shanxi became the site of Mao Zedong's "model brigade" of Dazhai. This was a Communist experiment meant to be a model for all peasants in China. It is possible that decades of Yan's socialist teachings prepared the people of Shanxi for Communist rule. After Mao's death, the experiment ended, and most peasants returned to private farming.
See also
In Spanish: Yan Xishan para niños
- An Chang-nam, Yan Xishan's flight school principal from 1926 to 1930
- Eighth Route Army
- History of the Republic of China
- List of Warlords
- National Revolutionary Army
- Shang Zhen
- Shanxi clique
