Istrian–Dalmatian exodus facts for kids
A young Italian person leaving their home carries their belongings and an Italian flag in 1945
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| Date | 1943–1960 |
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| Location |  Yugoslavia |
| Cause | The Treaty of Peace with Italy, signed after the Second World War, assigned the former Italian territories of Istria, Kvarner, the Julian March, and Dalmatia to the nation of Yugoslavia |
| Participants | Local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), as well as ethnic Slovenes and Croats who chose to maintain Italian citizenship. |
| Outcome | Between 230,000 and 350,000 people emigrated from Yugoslavia to Italy and, in a smaller number, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. |
The Istrian–Dalmatian exodus was a large movement of people after World War II. Many local Italians (from Istria and Dalmatia), along with some Slovenes and Croats, left their homes in the areas that became part of Yugoslavia. These regions included places like the Julian March (Karst Region and Istria), Kvarner, and Dalmatia. Most of these people moved to Italy. Others traveled further, settling in places like the Americas, Australia, and South Africa.
These areas had always been home to a mix of Croatian, Italian, and Slovene communities. After World War I, the Kingdom of Italy had taken control of Istria, Kvarner, and parts of Dalmatia. But after World War II, a peace agreement called the Treaty of Peace with Italy changed the borders. Most of these former Italian lands were given to the new country of Yugoslavia, which was led by a Communist government. Today, these areas are part of Croatia and Slovenia.
The peace treaty allowed people to choose their nationality. If they wanted to remain Italian citizens, they often had to leave their homes in Yugoslavia. Between 200,000 and 350,000 people, mostly Italians, decided to leave. Some Slovenes and Croats who wanted to keep their Italian citizenship also left. This big move started in 1943 and continued until 1954. Today, only about 21,894 Italians live in these areas in Croatia and Slovenia.
During and after World War II, many people in these regions faced difficult times. Some local Italians were victims of violence and unfair treatment, especially from the Yugoslav Partisans, a resistance group. This period of violence is sometimes called the foibe events. After 1947, the new Yugoslav government used other ways to pressure Italians to leave. These included taking over private properties, making taxes very high, and making it hard for them to live normally. These actions made many feel they had no choice but to move away. It's also important to know that some people from other groups, like Slovenes and Croats who disagreed with the new government, also left.
Contents
Understanding the Exodus
People who spoke Romance languages, like Italian, have lived in Istria for a very long time, even since the time of the Western Roman Empire. Italian communities were mainly found in the coastal cities, which were important for trade. However, the inner parts of the region were mostly home to Slavic people, especially Croatians.
Around 1900, about one-third of the people in Istria were Istrian Italians. A census in 1910 showed that out of about 400,000 people in Istria, many spoke Croatian (41.6%), Italian (36.5%), or Slovene (13.7%). This shows that the region was a mix of different cultures and languages.
Between 1918 and 1943, more Italians moved to these areas. At that time, places like Istria, Rijeka, and parts of Dalmatia were considered part of Italy. A 1936 Italian census counted about 230,000 people who spoke Italian in what is now Slovenia and Croatia.
From the end of World War II until 1953, between 200,000 and 350,000 people left these regions. Before the war, there were about 225,000 Italians living there. This means that many Slovenes and Croats also left, especially those who did not support the new Communist government in Yugoslavia.
Most of those who left were local Italians who had lived in the region for a long time. They chose to become Italian citizens and move to Italy. In Yugoslavia, they were called optanti (meaning "opting ones"), and in Italy, they were known as esuli (meaning "exiles"). This large movement of people changed the population and the mix of cultures in the region. By 1953, only about 36,000 Italians remained in Yugoslavia.
History of the Region and the Exodus
Early History and Cultural Mix
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By 476 AD, when the Western Roman Empire ended, the region of Dalmatia was largely Roman. In the early Middle Ages, Slavic people began to move into the Balkans. This caused many Romance-speaking people, who were descendants of Romans, to move to the coast and islands. The inland areas then became mostly Slavic.
Coastal cities like Zadar, Split, and Dubrovnik kept their Roman culture and language. They spoke a form of Vulgar Latin that developed into the Dalmatian language, which is now extinct. These cities had strong ties with Italy through the Adriatic Sea. Travel to the mainland was difficult because of the Dinaric Alps. This helped the coastal cities develop a unique Romance culture, even though the mainland was mostly Slavic.
Historians say that Istria was fully Roman by the 5th century AD. Between 500 and 700 AD, more Slavs settled in the area. This meant that Italian-speaking people mostly lived in cities, while the countryside became more Slavic. However, western and southern Istria remained mostly Romance-speaking.
By the 11th century, the inner, mountainous parts of northern and eastern Istria were mostly Slavic. The Romance population continued to live in the south and west. The Republic of Venice expanded its control over coastal parts of Istria and Dalmatia between the 9th century and 1797. This included cities like Pula, Koper, and Poreč.
From the Middle Ages onwards, more Slavic people moved to the Adriatic coast. This was due to their growing population and pressure from the Ottoman Empire. This led to Italian people mostly living in cities, while the countryside became more Slavic. People in the region were divided into city dwellers (mostly Romance-speakers) and rural communities (mostly Slavic-speakers).
The Republic of Venice influenced the Italian-speaking people of Istria and Dalmatia until 1797. Then, Napoleon conquered Venice. Istria and Dalmatia became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy in 1805. For centuries, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria and Dalmatia lived peacefully. They often saw themselves as "Istrians" or "Dalmatians" rather than by national identity.
Under Austrian Rule
After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia became part of the Austrian Empire. Many Istrian and Dalmatian Italians supported the Risorgimento movement, which aimed to unite Italy. However, after 1866, when Veneto and Friuli joined Italy, Istria and Dalmatia remained under the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This led to a movement called Italian irredentism, where many Italians in these regions wanted to join Italy.
Before 1859, Italian was the main language for government, schools, and newspapers. People who wanted to improve their social standing often became "Italians." But after 1866, Italians lost some of their special status. The Austrian rulers began to support Slavic schools and promoted Croatian as an official language. This caused some Italians to leave.
Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria even ordered actions to reduce Italian influence in some areas. He wanted to promote German or Slavic cultures in places like South Tyrol, Dalmatia, and the Littoral region.
In 1900, Istrian Italians made up about one-third of Istria's population. Dalmatia, especially its coastal cities, also had a significant Italian population. However, the number of Italians in Dalmatia steadily decreased due to Austrian policies. These policies aimed to promote Slavic culture in Dalmatia.
According to the 1910 Austro-Hungarian census, Istria was 57.8% Slavic-speaking and 38.1% Italian-speaking. In Dalmatia, 96.2% spoke Slavic languages, and 2.8% spoke Italian. In the city of Rijeka, Italians were the largest group (48.61% in 1910).
Italian people in Dalmatia mostly lived in the larger coastal cities. For example, in Zadar, 64.6% of the city's core population was Italian in 1890. However, in other Dalmatian towns, the number of Italians dropped sharply.
Even though Slavic speakers were the majority in Dalmatia, Italian language schools were the only ones available until 1848. Wealthy Italian-speaking people held political power due to voting rules. After 1870, when more Slavs could vote, Croatian parties gained control. Croatian became an official language in Dalmatia in 1883, alongside Italian. However, Italian speakers still had influence. In 1909, Italian lost its official language status in Dalmatia, leaving only Croatian.
World War I and Changes in Borders
In 1915, Italy joined World War I against the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Britain, France, and Russia promised Italy new territories if they won the war. This agreement, called the London Pact, included areas like Trentino, Trieste, South Tyrol, Istria, and northern Dalmatia.
After Austria-Hungary surrendered in November 1918, Italy took control of Trentino Alto-Adige, the Julian March, Istria, Kvarner, and Dalmatia. Italy set up a temporary government in Dalmatia, aiming to make it part of the Kingdom of Italy. The capital was Zadar.
However, after agreements between Italy and Yugoslavia, Italy withdrew from most of Dalmatia. The Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 gave Italy almost all of Istria, along with Trieste and the city of Zadar. Later, the Treaty of Rome in 1924 divided the city of Rijeka between Italy and Yugoslavia.
Between 1910 and 1921, Istria's population dropped by 15.1%. This was due to World War I, changes in government, and many people moving away. For example, the city of Pula lost many people after the Austrian military left. Thousands of Croat farmers also moved to Yugoslavia.
Life Under Italian Fascist Rule
After World War I, Italy gained control of most of Istria and Trieste. In these areas, the Italian Fascist government tried to make everyone speak Italian and adopt Italian culture. This was called Italianization. Fascist groups also committed acts of violence, like burning down Croatian and Slovene community centers.
The situation worsened after Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922. In 1923, the use of Croatian and Slovene languages was banned in government and courts. Croatian and Slovenian societies, clubs, and cultural groups were also shut down.
At the same time, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia tried to force Italian minorities in Dalmatia to adopt Croatian culture. This led many Italian people in Dalmatia to move to Italy.
World War II and Its Aftermath
During World War II, in 1941, Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and other countries invaded Yugoslavia. They redrew the borders and created a new state called the Independent State of Croatia, which was controlled by the Nazis. Italy took over more Dalmatian territory, including Zadar and many Adriatic islands.
Italy then tried to make these new areas Italian. They changed place names, made Italian the official language in schools and government, and banned Croatian cultural groups. These actions led many Dalmatians to resist and join the Yugoslav Partisans. In response, Italian forces took harsh measures, including taking many civilians to temporary camps.
When Italy surrendered in 1943, much of Italian-controlled Dalmatia was freed by the Partisans. Then, German forces took control in a brutal campaign. The Partisans finally took all of Dalmatia in 1944. After 1945, most of the remaining Dalmatian Italians left the region. Today, only a few hundred Dalmatian Italians live in Croatia and Montenegro. After World War II, Dalmatia became part of the new country of Yugoslavia.
Violence and Fear (1943-1947)
When the Fascist government in Italy collapsed in 1943, there were acts of revenge against Italian Fascists. Several hundred Italians were killed by Josip Broz Tito's Partisan resistance movement. Some of these victims were linked to the Fascist government, while others were caught in personal conflicts or were seen as enemies of the Partisans.
Between 1943 and 1947, a wave of violence, known as the "Foibe massacres", contributed to the exodus. This violence was mainly carried out by the OZNA (Yugoslav secret police) and Yugoslav Partisans in areas like Istria and Dalmatia. It targeted local Italians, as well as Croats and Slovenes who were seen as anti-communist or linked to the Fascist and Nazi powers. People who were thought to be against Tito's communist ideas were also targeted.
The violence created a climate of fear. The Partisans aimed to remove anyone who might oppose the future annexation of Italian territories to Yugoslavia. This included Italian anti-Fascists who wanted local independence. Many people were killed without fair trials. The term foibe refers to deep natural sinkholes where victims were sometimes thrown.
Historians still debate the exact number of people killed during these events. Estimates range from hundreds to thousands. This period of violence was a major reason why many Italians and others decided to leave their homes.
The Exodus: A Mass Departure
Many factors led to the exodus, including economic uncertainty, tensions between ethnic groups, and the changing political situation after the war. Up to 350,000 people, mostly Italians, chose to leave Istria and Dalmatia.
The Italian government had promised to pay these exiles for their lost property, but many never received full compensation. The people who left often faced difficult conditions. Many were housed in temporary camps. They also sometimes faced hostility from other Italians who worried about competition for jobs and resources. After the exodus, Yugoslav people moved into the areas that had been left empty.
A prominent Yugoslav politician, Milovan Đilas, stated in 1991 that officials in 1946 felt it was "necessary to employ all kinds of pressure to persuade Italians to leave." This was because Italians were the majority in many cities.
There was also a smaller "counter-exodus." Hundreds of Italian Communist workers from cities like Monfalcone and Trieste moved to Yugoslavia. They believed they could help build a socialist society there. However, many were disappointed and some were even sent to camps by the Yugoslav government.
Church leaders also faced pressure. The Italian bishop of Poreč and Pula, Raffaele Radossi, was replaced by a Slovene bishop in 1947. Bishop Radossi moved to Pula, which was under Allied control, and later left for Italy after facing threats.
Key Periods of the Exodus
The exodus happened between 1943 and 1960, with the largest movements of people in these years:
- 1943
- 1945
- 1947
- 1954
The first wave of departures happened after Italy surrendered in 1943. This was also when the first acts of anti-Fascist violence began. The city of Zadar saw a massive departure of its Italian population. In November 1943, Zadar was heavily bombed by the Allies, causing many deaths and destroying parts of the city. Many civilians fled. By the end of 1944, Zadar's population had dropped from 24,000 to 6,000.
A second wave of people left at the end of the war in 1945. This was due to violence, property seizures, and other pressures from the new Yugoslav authorities. When the Yugoslav Army took control of Rijeka in May 1945, many people connected to the previous Italian government faced severe consequences. By January 1946, over 20,000 people had left the area.
After 1945, the departure of Italians was also driven by less violent methods. These included the government taking over private properties, stopping transport services to Trieste, and imposing high taxes. There was also economic hardship and pressure on clergy and teachers.
The third major period of exodus occurred after the Paris peace treaty in 1947. This treaty assigned Istria to Yugoslavia, except for a small area that became the Free Territory of Trieste. The city of Pula saw a huge departure of its Italian residents. Between December 1946 and September 1947, about 28,000 out of 32,000 residents left Pula, choosing Italian citizenship and leaving their possessions behind.
The fourth period of exodus happened after the 1954 London agreement. This agreement gave Italy control of Zone A (including Trieste) and Yugoslavia control of Zone B of the former Free Territory of Trieste. Finally, in 1975, the Treaty of Osimo officially divided the Free Territory of Trieste between Yugoslavia and Italy.
How Many People Left?
Historians have different estimates for the number of people who left:
- Vladimir Žerjavić (Croat historian): 191,421 Italian exiles from Croatian territory.
- Nevenka Troha (Slovene historian): 40,000 Italian and 3,000 Slovene exiles from Slovenian territory.
- Raoul Pupo (Italian historian): about 250,000 Italian exiles.
- Flaminio Rocchi (Italian historian): about 350,000 Italian exiles.
A joint Italian-Slovenian Historical Commission found that 27,000 people migrated from Slovenian Istria, with 70% being ethnic Italians. For many years, the Yugoslav government did not openly discuss the exodus. However, in 1972, Josip Broz Tito himself stated that 300,000 Istrians had left the peninsula after the war.
Famous People Who Left
Many well-known people and their families left Istria or Dalmatia after World War II. These include:
- Alida Valli, a film actress
- Mario Andretti, a famous racing driver
- Lidia Bastianich, a chef
- Nino Benvenuti, a boxer and Olympic gold medalist
- Enzo Bettiza, a novelist, journalist, and politician
- Sergio Endrigo, a singer and songwriter
- Ottavio Missoni, a stylist
Legacy of the Exodus
Property Compensation
In 1983, Yugoslavia and Italy signed a treaty. Yugoslavia agreed to pay US$110 million to compensate the exiles for their confiscated property. However, this issue is very complex and is still not fully resolved. As of 2026, many exiles have not yet received compensation. It is unlikely that exiles from areas outside the former Zone B of the Free Territory of Trieste will ever be fully compensated.
Minority Rights in Yugoslavia
During the time of Communist Yugoslavia (1945–1991), ensuring equal rights for different ethnic groups and national minorities was very important. In 1943, the federation of Yugoslavia was formed. Its declaration stated that "Ethnic minorities in Yugoslavia shall be granted all national rights." These principles were included in the country's constitutions. They said that all nations and nationalities should have equal rights. This included the right to use their own language, develop their culture, and form organizations for these purposes.
Day of Remembrance in Italy
In Italy, a law passed in 2004 declared February 10 as a Day of Remembrance. This day honors the memory of the victims of the Foibe events and the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus. The law also created a special medal for the relatives of the victims.
Historical Discussions
Historians still discuss the exact causes and events of the Istrian exodus. It's a complex topic. Some historians believe that the reasons for leaving were many. These included fear from the initial violence after the war, property seizures, and pressure from the government. While there was no official order to expel Italians, the actions of the Yugoslav authorities were mixed. Sometimes they tried to stop people from leaving, but other times they pressured Italians to leave quickly.
Other historians point out that new state borders were drawn based on national groups, not just political ideas. Political groups then tried to convince minorities to choose one side or the other. Anyone who disagreed with the new government's ideas faced "purification commissions." This political pressure led to many people leaving, especially from Pula, after the peace treaty with Italy in 1947.
The Italian-Slovenian Historical Commission noted that some local activists wanted to remove Italians who opposed the new authorities. However, they found no clear evidence of an official plan to expel Italians until after 1948. After this time, many Italian Communists in Yugoslavia disagreed with Tito's party. The Yugoslav government then became more satisfied with Italians leaving. Violence and forced expulsions continued, and the borders between different zones were closed. The population mix in some cities also changed as more Yugoslavs moved in.
Italians Remaining in the Region
According to censuses in Croatia (2001) and Slovenia (2002), about 21,894 Italians remained in the former Yugoslavia. This includes 2,258 in Slovenia and 19,636 in Croatia. The number of people who speak Italian is even higher, as some non-Italians also speak it as a second language.
Since Yugoslavia broke up, many people in Istria have chosen to identify as "Istrians" rather than a specific nationality in censuses. This means more people might speak Italian as their first language than those who identify as Italian.
In 2001, about 500 Dalmatian Italians were counted in Dalmatia. Recent censuses show small numbers of Dalmatian Italians in cities like Split, Šibenik, Dubrovnik, and Zadar in Croatia, and Kotor in Montenegro.
The number of people in Croatia identifying as Italian almost doubled between 1981 and 1991. The main newspaper for Italians in Croatia, La Voce del Popolo, is published in Rijeka.
Official Bilingualism
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Italian is an official language alongside Slovene in four municipalities in the Slovenian part of Istria: Piran, Koper, Izola, and Ankaran. In many municipalities in the Croatian part of Istria, Italian is also an official language.
The city of Rijeka also supports the use of Italian for its local Italian minority. It helps with educational and cultural activities for Italian community members.
In several municipalities in Croatian Istria, a significant number of Italians still live there. For example, 51% of the population in Grožnjan/Grisignana is Italian. Italian is an official language alongside Croatian in eighteen municipalities in Croatian Istria, including Buje, Pula, and Rovinj.
Education and Italian Language Learning
Slovenia
In addition to Slovene language schools, there are kindergartens, primary schools, and high schools that teach in Italian in Koper, Izola, and Piran. Italian is a required subject in both Italian and Slovene schools in these bilingual areas. The Italian subject in Italian schools is more advanced.
Croatia
In Istria, there are Italian kindergartens and primary schools in many towns, including Buje, Pula, and Rovinj. There are also lower and upper secondary schools that teach in Italian in Buje, Rovinj, and Pula.
The city of Rijeka has Italian kindergartens and elementary schools, as well as an Italian Secondary School in Rijeka. The town of Mali Lošinj also has an Italian kindergarten.
In Zadar, Dalmatia, the local Italian community requested an Italian kindergarten. After some challenges, it opened in 2013, serving 25 children. This was the first Italian educational institution in Dalmatia since 1953. Since 2017, some Croatian schools in Zadar have also started offering Italian language courses.
See also
In Spanish: Éxodo istriano-dálmata para niños
- Foibe massacres
- National Memorial Day of the Exiles and Foibe
- Free Territory of Trieste
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Italian Social Republic
- Istria
- Italian language in Croatia
- Italian language in Slovenia
- Dalmatia
- Italianization
- Croatisation
- Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50)
- Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War
- Niçard exodus
