Kingdom of Kush facts for kids

"Kushites" redirects here. For the people who speak Cushitic languages, see Cushitic languages.

This page is about the kingdom south of Egypt. For the period of Kushite rule in Egypt, see Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.

Quick facts for kids

Kingdom of Kush

Qes (Meroitic)

c. 780 BC – c. AD 350

Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, circa 700 BC.

Status

Independent (780 BC – 530 BC/298 AD – 330 AD)
Vassal of the Achaemenid Empire (530 BC – 404 BC)
Vassal of the Macedonian Empire (404 BC – 305 BC)
Vassal of the Ptolemaic Empire (305 BC – 30 BC)
Vassal of the Roman Republic (30 BC – 27 BC)
Vassal of the Roman Empire (27 BC – 298 AD)
Under Aksumite rule (330 AD – 350 AD)

Capital

Kerma
Napata
Meroë

Common languages

Meroitic
Egyptian
Blemmyan
Old Nubian

Religion

Kushite religion
Kushite polytheism
Ancient Egyptian religion

Demonym(s)

Kushite

Government

Monarchy

Monarch

Historical era

Bronze Age to Late Antiquity

• Established

c. 780 BC

• Capital moved to Meroe

591 BC

• Disestablished

c. AD 350

Population

• Meroite phase

1,150,000

Preceded by

Succeeded by

New Kingdom of Egypt

Alodia
Makuria
Nobatia
Blemmyes

Today part of

Sudan
Egypt

The Kingdom of Kush was an ancient kingdom in Nubia. It was located along the Nile Valley in what is now northern Sudan and southern Egypt. Kush is also known as the Kushite Empire.

Nubia was an early center of civilization. Many advanced societies grew there, known for trade and industry. The city-state of Kerma became very powerful between 2450 and 1450 BC. It controlled the Nile Valley over a huge area, as big as Egypt.

The Egyptians first called Kerma "Kush". This name likely came from the local word "Kasu". For many centuries, the two civilizations traded, fought, and shared ideas.

Much of Nubia was ruled by Egypt during the New Kingdom (1550–1070 BC). After Egypt became weaker, the Kushites formed their own kingdom again. This new kingdom was centered in Napata (modern Karima, Sudan).

Kush shared many cultural ideas with Egypt, like worshipping the god Amun. Royal families from both kingdoms sometimes even married each other. However, Kushite culture, language, and people were unique. Egyptian art showed Kushites with different clothes, looks, and ways of travel.

In the 8th century BC, King Kashta of Kush became King of Upper Egypt peacefully. His daughter, Amenirdis, became a powerful priestess in Thebes. Kashta's successor, Piye, then took control of Lower Egypt. This started the Kushite-ruled Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt.

Kushite kings ruled Egypt for over a century. But then, the Assyrians invaded. Kings Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal drove the Kushites out of Egypt in the mid-seventh century BC. After this, the Kushite capital moved to Meroë. The Greeks called this kingdom Aethiopia.

From the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD, northern Nubia was taken over by Egypt. It was ruled by the Macedonians and then the Romans. This area was known as Dodekaschoinos. Later, the Kushite king Yesebokheamani took it back.

The Kingdom of Kush remained a strong power until the 4th century AD. It then became weak and broke apart due to internal problems. Bad weather and invasions by the Noba people also played a role. The Noba introduced the Nubian languages and gave their name to Nubia.

The Noba and the Blemmyes were fighting the Kushites. The Aksumites took advantage of this. They captured Meroë and took its gold. This marked the end of the Kushite kingdom. It split into three smaller kingdoms: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. The Aksumites probably did not stay in Meroë for long. Later, the Kingdom of Alodia gained control of the southern parts of the former Meroitic empire.

For a long time, Kush was seen as less important than Egypt. But new discoveries since the late 20th century show that Kush was an advanced civilization on its own. The Kushites had their own language and writing. They had a complex economy based on trade and making things. They were skilled archers and had a developed society with many women in important roles.

What Was Kush Called?

Kush in hieroglyphs

k3š
Ku'sh

The native name of the kingdom was written in Egyptian as kꜣš. It was likely pronounced something like "kuluʃ" or "kuʔuʃ". This term was first used for Nubia during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt.

"Kush" was also a term for the local people who started the kingdom. The name appears in the names of Kushite kings, like Kashta. Geographically, Kush referred to the area south of the first cataract of the Nile. The rulers of the 25th Dynasty also came from Kush.

In Greek writings, Kush was known as Kous or Aethiopia.

History of Kush

Early Cultures

Kerma culture
(c.2500 BC–c.1550 BC)

Kerma bowl, 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Mirror. End of Kerma Period, 1700-1550 BC. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Kerma Culture (2500–1500 BC)

The Kerma culture was an early civilization based in Kerma, Sudan. It was very successful from about 2500 BC to 1500 BC in ancient Nubia. The Kerma culture started in southern Nubia, also called "Upper Nubia". This area is now parts of northern and central Sudan.

Later, it spread north into Lower Nubia and reached the border of Egypt. This kingdom was one of several states along the Nile Valley during the Middle Kingdom of Egypt. In its last phase (around 1700–1500 BC), the Kingdom of Kerma grew very large. It became a powerful empire that was a rival to Egypt.

Egyptian Rule in Nubia (1504–1070 BC)

Nubian Prince Heqanefer bringing tribute for The Egyptian King Tutankhamun, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. c. 1342 – c. 1325 BC

Mentuhotep II, who founded the Middle Kingdom of Egypt in the 21st century BC, fought against Kush. This is the first time "Kush" is mentioned by Egyptians. Before this, the Nubian region had different names. Under Thutmose I, Egypt launched several attacks to the south.

The Egyptians ruled Kush during the New Kingdom. King Thutmose I took over Kush and destroyed its capital, Kerma. Nubia was officially added to Egypt around 1504 BC. After the conquest, Kerma culture became more like Egyptian culture. However, rebellions continued for 220 years until about 1300 BC.

Nubia became a very important province for Egypt. It was important for its economy, politics, and religion. Major Egyptian ceremonies were held at Jebel Barkal, near Napata. As an Egyptian colony, Nubia ("Kush") was governed by an Egyptian official called the Viceroy of Kush.

The Egyptians faced threats from the Hyksos in the north and the Kushites in the south. An Egyptian warrior named Ahmose, son of Ebana wrote about fighting Kush. He described Kushites as skilled archers. By 1200 BC, Egypt's control in the Dongola area was gone.

Egypt's power declined towards the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its allies in Canaan were conquered by the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians had built a huge empire, including much of the Near East.

Kush Becomes Independent (1070–754 BC)

Relief from the temple of Semna showing queen-king Karimala approaching Isis, 10th–9th century BC

When the New Kingdom of Egypt fell apart around 1070 BC, Kush became an independent kingdom. Its center was at Napata in modern northern Sudan. This new "Kingdom of Kush" was more like Egypt in some ways. It gained independence from Egypt.

It is hard to know how much the Kerma culture influenced the Kingdom of Kush. The Kingdom of Kush began to form around 1000 BC. This was 500 years after the Kerma kingdom ended.

Jebel Barkal was seen as the home of Amun. It became a key symbol for Kushite kings.

The pyramids of el-Kurru after Carl Richard Lepsius, 1859

The first known Kushite king was Alara. He ruled between 800 and 760 BC. No writings from his time exist. He was first mentioned in the tomb stone of his daughter, Tabiry. Later kings remembered Alara as the founder of their royal family. Some called him a "chieftain," others a "king." It is thought that Alara changed Kush from a small chiefdom into an Egyptian-style kingdom. This kingdom was centered around the worship of the god Amun. Alara was likely buried at el-Kurru.

Kushite Kings Rule Egypt (754 BC–656 BC)

Statues of various rulers from the late 25th Dynasty and early Napatan period: Tantamani, Taharqa (rear), Senkamanisken, again Tantamani (rear), Aspelta, Anlamani, again Senkamanisken. Kerma Museum.

Alara's successor, Kashta, expanded Kushite control north into Upper Egypt. He reached Elephantine and Thebes. Kashta's successor, Piye, took control of Lower Egypt around 727 BC. Piye's Victory Stela celebrates these campaigns. It was found in the Amun temple at Jebel Barkal. Piye invaded an Egypt that was split into four smaller kingdoms.

Historians debate why the Kushites decided to enter Egypt. One idea is that they felt they had a right to rule. Piye's Victory Stele says that "Amun of Napata granted me to be ruler of every foreign country." It also says "Amun in Thebes granted me to be ruler of the Black Land." This suggests Piye believed he was chosen to rule both Upper Egypt and Nubia.

Piye's successor, Shabataka, defeated the kings of northern Egypt. He became king in Memphis around 711-710 BC. He then made connections with Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. After Shabaka, Pharaoh Taharqa's army had successful military campaigns. They fought in places like Palestine.

However, Assyria saw these regions as their own. This led to war between the Mesopotamian Assyrian Empire and the Kushite Empire. In 701 BC, Taharqa and his army helped Judah and King Hezekiah. They helped them defend against a siege by King Sennacherib of the Assyrians. The Assyrians failed to take Jerusalem for various reasons. The Egyptian and Kushite forces then went back to Egypt.

Pyramids of Nuri, built between the reigns of Taharqa (circa 670 BC) and Nastasen (circa 310 BC).

The 25th Dynasty became very powerful under Taharqa. The Nile valley empire was as large as it had been since the New Kingdom. Egypt's culture became strong again. Art, religion, and architecture returned to their glorious past forms. The Kushite pharaohs built or repaired temples and monuments. These included sites in Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal.

During the 25th Dynasty, many pyramids were built in the Nile valley. Most of these are in modern Sudan. The Kushites also created their own writing system, the Meroitic alphabet. It was influenced by Egyptian writing around 700–600 BC.

Assyrian Conquest of Egypt

Wall panel showing Assyrian soldiers attacking a Kushite fortress in Egypt. Niniveh, Iraq.

War broke out in 674 BC. Taharqa and his allies first defeated the Assyrians at Ashkelon. However, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King Esarhaddon began a larger invasion of Egypt. The Assyrians moved quickly and powerfully. Memphis was captured, and Taharqa fled to Nubia. His family members were taken to the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, as prisoners.

Esarhaddon boasted that he "deported all Aethiopians from Egypt." But the Egyptian rulers he put in charge could not control the whole country. Taharqa was able to regain control of Memphis. Esarhaddon died in 669 BC while on his way to fight Taharqa again. His successor, Ashurbanipal, then defeated Taharqa. Taharqa's forces were driven back into Nubia. Taharqa died in Napata in 664 BC.

Wall painting of king Tantamani from his tomb in el-Kurru. Under him, Egypt was lost for good.

Taharqa's successor, Tantamani, sailed north from Napata with a large army. He was "ritually installed as the king of Egypt" in Thebes. Tantamani tried to take back Egypt. He regained control of parts of southern Egypt, including Memphis. He defeated the Assyrian's local ruler, Necho I.

The Assyrians then sent a large army south in 663 BC. Tantamani was completely defeated. The Assyrian army sacked Thebes so badly that it never fully recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia. He continued to try and control Upper Egypt until about 656 BC. At that time, an Egyptian ruler named Psamtik I took control of Thebes. He was a vassal of Ashurbanipal. The last ties between Kush and Upper Egypt were cut after fights with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.

Napatan Period (656 BC–270 BC)

Kushite civilization continued for several centuries. The Kushite rulers were descendants of the 25th Dynasty pharaohs. They were also guardians of the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal. They could have claimed a right to control Egypt. This made them a possible threat to Egypt's rulers.

Kushite delegation on a Persian relief from the Apadana palace (c. 500 BC)

The Greek historian Herodotus mentioned an invasion of Kush by the Achaemenid ruler Cambyses around 530 BC. Some say Cambyses took over the area between the first and second Nile cataracts. However, Herodotus also says his expedition failed badly in the desert. Achaemenid writings from Egypt and Iran list Kush as part of the Achaemenid empire.

From about 425–300 BC, Kush saw a time of renewed activity. Kings like Amannote-erike brought back older practices. They put up royal steles (stone slabs) and statues. Several old pyramids, including Taharqa's, were made larger. King Harsiotef (around 400 BC) ruled for at least 35 years. He fought many campaigns against enemies. He also gave money to temples throughout Kush. King Nastasen (around 325 BC) fought wars against nomadic groups. He was the last king buried at Nuri.

Meroitic Period (270 BC–4th Century AD)

Aspelta moved the capital to Meroë. This was much farther south than Napata. It might have happened around 591 BC, after Napata was attacked by Psamtik II. Historians believe the Kushite rulers chose Meroë because it was in a good location. It was on the edge of the summer rainfall area. The region was also rich in iron ore and hardwood, which were good for iron working.

The location also gave access to trade routes to the Red Sea. The Kushites traded iron products, gold, ivory, and slaves with the Romans. The Butana plain lost many of its forests because of iron production.

Jewelry found on the Mummy of Nubian King Amaninatakilebte (538-519 BC), Nuri pyramid 10. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Gold flower shaped diadem, found in the Pyramid of King Talakhamani (435–431 BC), Nuri pyramid 16. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.

Around 300 BC, the move to Meroë was complete. Kings began to be buried there instead of at Napata. One idea is that this showed the kings breaking away from the power of the priests in Napata. During this time, Kushite power may have stretched about 1,500 km along the Nile River valley. It went from the Egyptian border in the north to areas far south of modern Khartoum. It probably also included large areas to the east and west.

There were some conflicts between the Kushites and the Ptolemies (Greek rulers of Egypt). In 275 or 274 BC, Ptolemy II sent an army to Nubia. They defeated Kush and took over an area called Triakontaschoinos. There was also a serious revolt around 204 BC. The Kushites likely tried to get involved in Ptolemaic affairs. This might have led to Ptolemy V erasing the name of Arqamani from inscriptions.

After the Romans took control of Egypt, they made a deal with the Kushites. They set the southern border of Roman Egypt at Aswan. The Kingdom of Kush became a client kingdom, meaning it was somewhat dependent on Rome. Kushite ambition and high Roman taxes might have caused a revolt.

Bronze head of Emperor Augustus found under the staircase of a temple in Meroe

Meroitic prince smiting his enemies (early first century AD)

Strabo describes a war with the Romans in the 1st century BC. He says the Kushites attacked Aswan with 30,000 men. They destroyed statues of the emperor. A large bronze head of Emperor Augustus was found buried in Meroë. After initial victories by Kandake (Queen) Amanirenas against Roman Egypt, the Kushites were defeated. Napata was sacked.

However, the destruction of Napata did not stop the Kushites. Amanirenas continued to fight the Romans. In 22 BC, a large Kushite force moved north to attack Qasr Ibrim. The Roman prefect of Egypt, Gaius Petronius, marched south. He strengthened the defenses of Qasr Ibrim before the Kushites arrived. After a Kushite attack, they sent ambassadors to make peace. The Kushites successfully negotiated a good peace treaty. Trade between the two nations increased. The Roman-Egyptian border was moved to Hiera Sykaminos. This agreement "guaranteed peace for most of the next 300 years."

Decline and Fall of Kush

Kush began to lose its power by the 1st or 2nd century AD. Wars with Roman Egypt and a decline in its traditional industries weakened it. However, there is evidence of Kushite kings at Philae in the 3rd century AD. It is thought that the Kushites reoccupied lower Nubia after Roman forces left Aswan.

The stele of Aksumite Emperor Ezana celebrating his expedition against the Noba and Kush

The fall of Meroë is often linked to an invasion by the Aksumites. Aksumite writings confirm their presence in Meroë. One writing mentions military actions and demanding tribute. These writings were likely from Aksumite victory monuments. They were dedicated to Ares/Maher, the god of war. This means they were put up before Aksum became Christian around 340 AD. An inscription from Aksum also mentions Kush as a vassal kingdom. The Ezana stele describes another expedition after 340 AD. Ezana's army fought against Kush. Meroë itself is not mentioned, suggesting Ezana did not attack the city. Aksum's presence in Nubia was probably short-lived.

Meroitic texts from the 1st century BC mention conflicts with the Noba people. The Noba lived west of the Nile. They were ruled by their own chiefs and kings. The increasingly dry climate might have forced them to attack the Nile Valley. The Ezana stele says the Noba had taken Kushite towns. They were also active as far east as the Takeze River. These attacks were a main reason for Ezana's Nubian expedition.

At Meroë, the last pyramids and non-royal burials date to the mid-4th century. This is usually seen as the end of the Kingdom of Kush. After this, the "post-Meroitic" period began. During this time, cities declined. The Meroitic religion and writing disappeared. New local leaders emerged. They were buried in large mounds.

Burials from Qustul (around 380–410) and Ballana (410–500) in Lower Nubia are linked to the rise of Nobatia. To its north were the Blemmyes. They established a kingdom around Talmis around 394 AD. This kingdom lasted until Nobatia conquered it around 450 AD. Not much is known about the political changes south of the third cataract. But it seems that Dongola (later the capital of Makuria) and Soba (the capital of Alodia) were founded then. Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia became Christian in the 6th century. This marked the start of medieval Nubia.

Language and Writing

Meroitic ostracon

The Meroitic language was spoken in Meroë and Sudan during the Meroitic period (from 300 BC). It died out around 400 AD. It is not certain which language family Meroitic belongs to. Some scholars think it is part of the Afro-Asiatic family, like Egyptian. Others believe it belongs to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-Saharan family.

In the Napatan Period, Egyptian hieroglyphs were used. Writing seemed to be only for the royal court and temples. From the 2nd century BC, a separate Meroitic writing system appeared. The language was written in two forms of the Meroitic alphabet. Meroitic Cursive was used for everyday records. Meroitic Hieroglyphic was carved in stone for royal or religious documents.

This language is not well understood because there are few texts that are written in both Meroitic and another known language. The earliest Meroitic writing is from between 180 and 170 BC. These hieroglyphs were found on Queen Shanakdakhete's temple. Meroitic Cursive is written from right to left. It was an alphabet with 23 signs. The script was deciphered, but the language itself is still a mystery.

Technology, Medicine, and Mathematics

Technology in Kush

The people of the Kingdom of Kush developed a type of water wheel. It was called the saqiyah, or kolē by the Kushites. The saqiyah was developed during the Meroitic period to improve irrigation. This machine helped lift water 3 to 8 meters. It used much less work and time than the shaduf, which was the main irrigation tool before. The shaduf used human energy, but the saqiyah was powered by animals like buffalo.

The "Great Hafir" (reservoir) at Musawwarat es-Sufra

The Kushites also developed a type of reservoir called a hafir. This was during the Meroitic period. Eight hundred ancient and modern hafirs have been found in the Meroitic town of Butana. Hafirs collected water during the rainy season for storage. They made sure water was available for months during the dry season. They also supplied drinking water, irrigated fields, and watered cattle. The Great Hafir near the Lion Temple in Musawwarat es-Sufra is a famous one. It was built to hold rainfall from the short, wet season. It is 250 meters wide and 6.3 meters deep.

Early records show that bloomeries (furnaces for making iron) were used in Kush by the 7th and 6th centuries BC. These furnaces produced metal tools for the Kushites. They even made extra to sell.

Medicine in Kush

Studies of Nubian mummies in the 1990s showed that Kush was a pioneer in early antibiotics. Tetracycline was found in the bone remains of Nubians from 350 AD to 550 AD. This antibiotic was not widely used until the mid-20th century.

The theory is that clay jars used for making beer contained a bacterium called streptomyces. This bacterium produced tetracycline. The Nubians did not know about tetracycline. But they might have noticed that people who drank beer were healthier.

Mathematics in Kush

Engraved plans of Meroitic King Amanikhabali's pyramids show that Nubians had a good understanding of mathematics. They used harmonic ratios in their designs. This suggests there is much more to learn about Nubian mathematics. The ancient Nubians also created a system of geometry. They used it to make early versions of sun clocks. During the Meroitic period, Nubians used a method of trigonometry similar to the Egyptians.

Military of Kush

Relief of a battle scene on temple Meroe 250 (also known as "Sun Temple"), 1st century AD

During the siege of Hermopolis in the 8th century BC, siege towers were built for the Kushite army. These towers were led by Piye. They helped Kushite archers and slingers to shoot more effectively. Piye personally oversaw the building of a siege tower. This allowed Kushite archers to fire down into the city.

Bowmen were the most important part of the Kushite military. Ancient writings say that Kushite archers used long, one-piece bows. These bows were between six and seven feet long. They were so strong that many archers used their feet to bend them. However, composite bows were also used. The Greek historian Herodotus said that bows were made of palm wood. Arrows were made of cane and often had poisoned tips.

Elephants were sometimes used in battles during the Meroitic period. This happened in the war against Rome around 20 BC.

Architecture in Kush

The pyramids of Meroe – UNESCO World Heritage.

Amun temple of Jebel Barkal, originally built during the Egyptian New Kingdom but greatly enhanced by Piye

During the Bronze Age, Nubian ancestors of the Kingdom of Kush built speoi. A speos is a temple or tomb cut into a rock face. These were built between 3700 and 3250 BC. This greatly influenced the architecture of the New Kingdom of Egypt.

Tomb monuments were a very recognizable part of Kushite architecture. Unique Kushite tomb monuments have been found from the beginning of the empire to its decline. These monuments developed from earlier Nubian burial styles. Tombs became larger during the 25th Dynasty. King Taharqa's tomb was a large underground building cut from rock.

Kushites also built pyramids, mud-brick temples (deffufa), and stone temples. Kushites borrowed many ideas from Egypt for temple design. Kushite temples had diverse plans, except for the Amun temples. All Amun temples had the same basic plan. The Jebel Barkal and Meroë Amun temples are exceptions. The 150-meter-long Jebel Barkal temple is the largest "Egyptian" temple ever built in Nubia. Temples for major Egyptian gods were built using specific harmonic proportions. Kush also invented Nubian vaults.

The so-called "Roman kiosk" (right) and temple of Apedemak (left), Naqa (1st century AD)

Piye is thought to have built the first true pyramid at el Kurru. Pyramids are the main type of tomb for the Kushite royal family. They are found at el Kurru, Nuri, Jebel Barkal, and Meroë. Kushite pyramids are smaller and have steeper sides than northern Egyptian pyramids. The Kushites likely copied the pyramids of New Kingdom elites.

Kushite homes were mostly round timber huts. Some apartment houses had several two-room apartments. These likely housed extended families. The Kushites built a stone-paved road at Jebel Barkal. They also built piers or harbors on the Nile River and many wells.

Economy of Kush

Hieratic papyrus written during the reigns of Taharqa and Shabaqa discussing financial matters, Thebes

Some experts believe the economy in the Kingdom of Kush was a redistributive system. This means the government collected taxes in the form of extra goods. Then, it would give these goods back to the people. Other experts think that most of society worked on the land. They did not need or contribute much to the state. Northern Kush seems to have been richer and more productive than the southern area.

Images for kids

Portrait of Taharqa, Kerma Museum
The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan.
Taharqa's shrine, Ashmolean museum in Oxford, UK
Taharqa's kiosk, Karnak Temple
Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK
Meroitic pottery, Nelluah (Egyptian Nubia)