Nubia facts for kids

This page is about the region in Africa. For other uses, see Nubia (disambiguation).

Nubia

Statues of several Nubian rulers from the 7th century BC. From left to right: Tantamani, Taharqa (rear), Senkamanisken, again Tantamani (rear), Aspelta, Anlamani, again Senkamanisken. From the Kerma Museum.

Outline of Nubia

Nubia (pronounced NEW-bee-uh) is a special region along the Nile River in Africa. It stretches from near Khartoum in central Sudan all the way north to just south of Aswan in southern Egypt. This area was once home to some of Africa's oldest civilizations, like the Kerma culture, which thrived from about 2500 BC until it was taken over by ancient Egypt around 1500 BC.

Nubia was also home to several powerful kingdoms, most famously the Kingdom of Kush. This kingdom even ruled Egypt for a time, with kings like Piye becoming pharaohs in the 8th century BC. Later, parts of northern Nubia were ruled by the Greeks and then the Romans.

After the Kingdom of Kush declined around 400 AD, three Christian kingdoms grew strong in Nubia: Nobatia, Makuria, and Alodia. These kingdoms lasted for about a thousand years. Later, Nubia was divided, and many people became Muslim and started speaking Arabic. The region was reunited for a while in the 19th century, but today, Nubia is split between Egypt and Sudan.

Ancient Nubians were very clever! They developed early medicines and used geometrics for things like sundials. They also understood trigonometric methods, similar to the Egyptians. Studying ancient Nubia, its history, and its people is called Nubiology.

Nubian Languages: A Look at Their History

Historically, people in Nubia spoke different Nubian languages. These languages belong to a family that includes Nobiin (which comes from Old Nubian), Dongolawi, and Midob. These are spoken in northern parts of the Nuba Mountains. The Birgid language was also spoken in Darfur until about 1970.

We are not entirely sure what language the ancient Kerma culture people spoke. Some experts think it was related to Cushitic languages, while others believe it was part of the Eastern Sudanic languages family.

Where is Nubia? Understanding its Geography

Nubia is divided into three main areas: Upper, Middle, and Lower Nubia. These names refer to their location along the Nile River. "Lower" means downstream (further north), and "Upper" means upstream (further south).

Lower Nubia was between the First and Second Cataracts, mostly within modern Egypt.
Middle Nubia was between the Second and Third Cataracts.
Upper Nubia was south of the Third Cataract.

History of Ancient Nubia

Early Times: Nubia Before 3500 BC

Megaliths from Nabta Playa displayed in the Aswan Nubian museum

Archaeological findings show that people lived in the Nile Valley for a very long time. They fished, hunted, gathered food, and later started herding animals.

The Affad 23 site in Sudan has remains of ancient camps, including what might be the oldest open-air hut in the world, dating back 50,000 years. In southern Nubia, people made advanced pottery between 9000 and 6000 BC.

By 5000 BC, Nubians began farming and raising animals like sheep, goats, and cattle. This happened as the Sahara desert became drier. Ancient rock art in Nubia shows hunters using bows and arrows, which was a skill Nubians were famous for later on.

At Nabta Playa, large stone structures called megaliths were found. These are early examples of one of the world's first ways to study the stars, even older than Stonehenge! This shows that early Nubian societies were well-organized.

Archaeologist Bruce Williams found artifacts like the Qustul incense burner. These showed that Nubians played a part in developing early Egyptian civilization. Another expert, Dietrich Wildung, suggested that Nubian art styles influenced early Egyptian culture during the Neolithic period.

The A-Group Culture (3500-3000 BC)

Nubian "A-Group" style pottery, Musee du Louvre

Nubia has one of the oldest civilizations in the world. Around 3500 BC, the Early A-Group culture appeared in Lower Nubia. These people were farmers who traded gold and other goods with the Egyptians. We know this because many Egyptian items were found in A-Group graves. They also made unique black-topped, red pottery.

Qustul incense burner, 3200–3000 BC

Around 3100 BC, the A-Group culture became even more developed. Important burials were found at Qustul and possibly Sayala. A-Group kings were very wealthy, and their tombs held gold and beautiful pottery. Some experts think Nubian and early Egyptian rulers shared similar royal symbols.

Archaeologist Bruce Williams believed that the A-Group culture in Nubia and early Egypt shared many cultural ideas. He even suggested that Qustul might have been where Egypt's first ruling family came from. However, most experts now think these symbols started in Egypt. They believe the Qustul rulers then copied them. Sadly, the ancient cemeteries at Qustul are now underwater due to Lake Nasser.

Egypt and Nubia in Early Times

Writing developed in Egypt around 3300 BC. In their writings, Egyptians called Nubia "Ta-Seti", which means "The Land of the Bow." This is because Nubians were known as expert archers.

Studies show that the Naqada people in Egypt and the Nubian A-Group had different cultures. This was seen in their pottery, burials, and goods. While Egyptians traded goods to Nubia, Nubian goods were not often found in Egyptian burials. Some historians believe certain Egyptian pharaohs, like Mentuhotep II and Amenemhat I, might have had Nubian family roots.

Pair of guardian statues of Middle Kingdom pharaohs. The Twelfth dynasty of Egypt had origins in Ta-Seti, which included parts of southern Egypt and Lower Nubia.

The A-Group culture ended around 3100-2900 BC. It seems to have been taken over by the First Dynasty rulers of Egypt. Lower Nubia was mostly empty for the next 600 years. During this time, Egyptian dynasties controlled Lower Nubia and sometimes raided Upper Nubia.

Kerma and C-Group Cultures (2400-1550 BC)

Kerma style pottery (2500–1500 BC)

In Upper Nubia, the pre-Kerma culture grew into the Middle Kerma group. By 2000 BC, the Kerma culture became the main power in Upper Nubia. This independent Upper Nubia grew stronger and started to control Lower Nubia around 1700 BC. Egyptian records mention different Nubian regions. Later, they spoke of two main kingdoms: Kush and Shaat. Kush was centered at Kerma.

In Lower Nubia, C-Group Nubians resettled the area by 2400 BC. As trade with Egypt increased, so did their wealth. Nubia was divided into many small kingdoms. Experts debate if the C-Group people developed locally or came from elsewhere. Even though they lived near Egyptians, C-Group Nubians kept much of their own culture.

Another group, the Pan Grave culture, also appeared between 2200 and 1700 BC. Some of these people were likely the Medjay, desert dwellers from the east.

Egypt's Influence in Nubia (2300-1550 BC)

11th Dynasty model of Nubian archers in the Egyptian army (c. 2130–1991 BC).

11th Dynasty model of Egyptian soldiers.

In 2300 BC, Nubia was first mentioned in Egyptian records about trade. Egyptians traded with Nubia for gold, incense, ivory, and exotic animals. Egyptians and Nubians often had peaceful relationships, sharing culture and even marrying each other. Nubian archers who settled in Egypt sometimes married Egyptian women and adopted Egyptian customs.

Later, Egypt's Middle Kingdom took control of Lower Nubia from 2000 to 1700 BC. King Senusret I built many towns and strong fortresses in Nubia. Senusret III expanded his kingdom even further, building massive forts like Buhen and Semna. These forts helped Egypt control trade routes and access Upper Nubia.

The Medjay were desert people from east of the Nile. They became important scouts and soldiers in the Egyptian army. They protected valuable areas and helped in battles. They were known for guarding royal palaces and tombs.

The Kerma Kingdom and Egyptian Rule (1550-1100 BC)

The Western Deffufa of Sudan

The Kerma culture grew into the first Nubian kingdom. Its capital, Kerma, was one of the oldest cities in Africa outside of Egypt. The Kerma people spoke either Cushitic or Nilo-Saharan languages.

Daggers of bone and copper, 1750–1450 BC, Kerma, British Museum EA55442

By 1650 BC, Kerma kings were very powerful. They built huge mud-brick structures like the Eastern and Western Deffufas. Their tombs were rich with goods for the afterlife. Archaeologist George Andrew Reisner found unique Nubian buildings and large tombs at Kerma.

Mirror. Kerma Period, 1700–1550 BC.

Kerma was a strong military culture, known for its archers and bronze weapons. Nubians often rebelled against Egyptian rule. There were many conflicts. At one point, the Kingdom of Kush almost conquered Egypt, showing their great power. They controlled trade with southern Egypt.

However, the New Kingdom of Egypt later conquered both Lower and Upper Nubia from 1500 to 1070 BC. After 1070 BC, Nubians focused on Upper Nubia. Within 200 years, a new Kushite state, based at Napata, began to grow powerful.

Egypt's New Kingdom in Nubia

Nubian Prince Heqanefer bringing tribute for King Tutankhamun, 18th dynasty, Tomb of Huy. Circa 1342 – c. 1325 BC

After the Egyptians drove out the Hyksos invaders, they turned their attention to Nubia. By 1520 BC, all of Lower Nubia was under Egyptian control. After a long campaign, Egypt also conquered the Kingdom of Kerma in Upper Nubia. They held both areas until 1070 BC.

The Turin Papyrus Map, dating to about 1160 BC, shows a gold mine in Nubia.

The Egyptian empire expanded far south, and a new center was built at Napata. This area became important for producing gold and incense. Egypt became a major source of gold in the Middle East. One of the oldest maps known, the Turin Papyrus Map from about 1160 BC, shows a gold mine in Nubia.

Nubians were an important part of Egyptian society during the New Kingdom. Some historians believe that Ahmose-Nefertari, a very respected Egyptian queen, might have had Nubian origins. She is often shown with black skin, which some scholars link to her role as a goddess of resurrection or her ancestry.

Ramesses II in his war chariot charging into battle against the Nubians. New Kingdom reliefs show Nubians with dark skin tones.

Around 1098–1088 BC, there was conflict in Thebes, Egypt, involving the High Priest of Amun and the Viceroy of Kush, Pinehesy. This led to a civil war. Pinehesy and his troops were eventually pushed out of Egypt and into Lower Nubia. Later, new Egyptian leaders tried to regain control of Lower Nubia but could not defeat Pinehesy.

The Napatan Empire (750–542 BC)

Pyramids of Kushite rulers at Nuri

There are different ideas about where the Kushite kings of the 25th Dynasty came from. Some believe they were Nubian officials who learned how to organize a state while working for the Egyptians. Others think they were from Egyptianized Nubian families.

Pyramid of Taharqa at Nuri, the largest pyramid built in Sudan.

The area of El Kurru was likely very important for the Kingdom of Kush. It had access to gold, controlled trade routes, and had good farmland. El Kurru was the burial place for the ancestors of the 25th Dynasty. Early burials there followed Nubian traditions, but later ones became more Egyptian in style.

Pharaoh Taharqa of Ancient Egypt's 25th Dynasty. Ashmolean Museum, Oxford UK

Alara, the first El Kurru prince, and his successor, Kashta, were buried there. Alara's sister was a priestess of Amun, which helped create a system of royal power that blended Kushite and Egyptian ideas. Later, Kashta's daughter, Princess Amenirdis, became a powerful religious leader in Egypt, showing Kushite influence.

The Napatan Empire brought back many old Egyptian traditions. Kings like Piye, Shabaka, and Taharqa built and restored many temples, especially the Temple of Amun at Jebel Barkal and in Thebes. By 780 BC, Amun was the main god of Kush. Kush also adopted Egyptian art and writing, and many Nubian elites used Egyptian names.

Nubian Pharaohs in Egypt

Kushite heartland, and Kushite Empire of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt, circa 700 BC.

Kashta peacefully became King of Upper and Lower Egypt. His daughter, Amendiris, became a powerful religious figure in Thebes. The city-state of Napata was the spiritual capital of Kush. From there, Piye led an invasion and took control of Egypt. He recorded his victory on a large stone tablet called the "Stele of Victory." Piye also started building pyramids again, constructing the oldest known pyramid at El-Kurru.

Taharqa's kiosk and column, Karnak temple

Taharqa was crowned in Memphis in 690 BC and ruled all of Egypt. Horse skeletons found at El-Kurru show that Nubia bred excellent horses, which were key to the Kushite army. Taharqa's reign was a time of prosperity, with good harvests. His army also had successful military campaigns.

The powerful Assyrian Empire in Mesopotamia eventually clashed with the 25th Dynasty. Taharqa helped other kingdoms against Assyria. In 701 BC, Taharqa's army helped the Kingdom of Judah resist an Assyrian siege.

In 671 BC, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon invaded Egypt, captured Memphis, and forced Taharqa to retreat south. Taharqa later tried to regain control, but the Assyrians, under Ashurbanipal, defeated him again and advanced as far as Thebes. The Assyrians appointed Necho I as their ruler in Egypt.

Taharqa's successor, Tantamani, sailed north and regained control of Egypt as far as Memphis. He defeated Necho I. However, the Assyrians eventually pushed the Kushites out of Egypt around 590 BC. The Kushite kingdom then moved its capital south to Meroë and survived for another 900 years.

The Meroitic Period (542 BC–400 AD)

Aerial view of Nubian pyramids at Meroe

Meroë became the southern capital of the Kingdom of Kush due to pressure from the Assyrians and Egyptians. Meroë was located in southern Nubia, about 200 km northeast of Khartoum. Ancient Greek historians like Herodotus described it as a "great city."

Apedemak Temple at Naqa

The city's importance grew, especially after the royal burial ground moved there from Napata around 280 BC. Meroitic kings were buried in small pyramids with steep sides. At its peak, Meroë's rulers controlled a vast area of the Nile Valley.

Meroitic people kept many ancient Egyptian customs but also had their own unique ways. They spoke the Meroitic language and developed their own writing system. This system used Egyptian hieroglyphs at first, then a cursive alphabet with 23 signs. It is still not fully understood today. The Meroitic people worshipped Egyptian gods, as well as their own gods like Apedemak.

Meroë was a rich kingdom, known for its strong iron industry and trade with places like India and China. Other important Meroitic sites included Musawwarat es-Sufra and Naqa. Musawwarat es-Sufra, a World Heritage Site, has a large, maze-like building complex called the Great Enclosure. Its purpose is still debated, but it includes temples, courtyards, and a large reservoir for rainwater.

Kandake (often called Candace) was the Meroitic title for the king's sister, who would be the mother of the next king. This shows that women held important power. Famous Kandakes include Amanirenas and Amanishakheto. In 25 BC, Kandake Amanirenas attacked the Roman city of Syene (modern Aswan). Emperor Augustus retaliated by destroying Napata. However, the Kushites later negotiated a peace treaty with the Romans, which brought peace and increased trade for nearly 300 years.

Persian and Greek Influence

Kušiya soldier of the Achaemenid army, circa 480 BC. From a Xerxes I tomb relief.

The Persian ruler Cambyses II tried to invade Kush, but his army struggled in the desert. However, the Persians under Darius I later managed to occupy the Kushan kingdom.

Marble portrait of a Nubian ca. 120–100 BC

The Greek Ptolemaic Kingdom in Egypt invaded northern Nubia around 275 BC and took control of a small part of the territory. There is no record of major wars between the Kushites and the Ptolemies. However, the Kushites likely tried to get involved in Ptolemaic politics.

The End of Meroë

Meroitic prince Arikhankharer smiting his enemies, first century AD (Worcester Art Museum, Worcester, MA)

Eventually, the Meroitic kingdom became weaker. It was finally defeated by the rising Kingdom of Aksum from the south, ruled by King Ezana, around 350 AD. After this, the Romans started calling the area Nobatia.

Christian Nubia

Wall painting from Faras, 11th century CE, National Museum in Warsaw

Around 350 AD, after the Meroitic kingdom collapsed, three smaller Christian kingdoms took its place:

Nobatia (capital Pachoras) in the north.
Makuria (capital Old Dongola) in the middle.
Alodia (capital Soba) in the south.

Christianity had arrived in the region by the 4th century. Around 545 AD, a priest named Julian helped convert the king and nobles of Nobatia to Christianity. The kingdom of Alodia was also converted around 569 AD.

By the 7th century, Makuria grew and became the most powerful kingdom. It was strong enough to stop the spread of Islam southwards after the Arabs had taken Egypt. After some failed invasions, the new Muslim rulers and Dongola agreed to a treaty called the Baqt. This treaty allowed for peaceful coexistence and trade. It also required Nubians to make an annual payment of slaves and other tributes to the Islamic Governor at Aswan. This treaty lasted for 600 years.

Over time, more Arab traders came to Nubia, and Islam gradually replaced Christianity. After a break in the annual tribute, the Egyptian Mamluk ruler invaded in 1272. By 1317, the cathedral of Dongola had been turned into a mosque.

The arrival of Arabs and Nubians in Egypt and Sudan led to a blending of cultures. Today, most Nubians are Muslim, and Arabic is their main language, along with their traditional Nubian languages. Nubian culture is still unique, seen in their dress, dances, and music.

Islamic Nubia

In the 14th century, the Dongolan government collapsed, and the region was divided and influenced by Arabs. Several Arab invasions and the creation of smaller kingdoms happened over the next few centuries. Northern Nubia came under Egyptian control, while the south was controlled by the Kingdom of Sennar in the 16th century.

The entire region came under Egyptian control in the early 19th century under Muhammad Ali of Egypt. Later, it became a joint Anglo-Egyptian territory.

21st-century Archaeology: New Discoveries

Scientists have studied the bones of Nubians from ancient times to the 16th century BC. Early Mesolithic Nubians were strong and tall. Later, Neolithic Nubians were less robust and shorter. These changes over 8,500 years show that Nubians were not all the same. They were influenced by migrations and contacts with other African regions.

In 2016, studies on Nubian remains over 11,000 years showed big changes in skull shape between the Mesolithic and A-Group periods. Further changes were seen between early farmers and later farming groups. These changes might be due to people adapting to their environment or new groups of people moving into the area. More studies with ancient DNA are needed to understand this better.

In 2003, archaeologist Charles Bonnet and his team found amazing black granite statues of the 25th Dynasty pharaohs near Kerma. These statues, including those of Taharqa and Tantamani, are now displayed at the Kerma Museum and are considered masterpieces of art.

Studies of Kerma fossils show they were similar to early Egyptians from the Naqada culture. Dental studies also found links to other ancient people in the Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, and Northeast Africa, especially to other Kushite and Ethiopian groups.

Contemporary Issues for Nubians

After colonialism ended, Nubia was divided between Egypt and Sudan. The Republic of Egypt was established in 1953, and the Republic of Sudan became independent in 1956.

In the early 1970s, many Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians had to move from their homes. This happened to make way for Lake Nasser after the Aswan Dams were built. Today, many Nubians live in cities like Cairo and Khartoum, or in new villages north of Aswan.

Ancient DNA Discoveries

In 2014, a child's skeleton from the Christian Period (500-1400 AD) was found in Wadi Halfa, Sudan. DNA analysis showed this individual had a mix of African and European ancestry.

Another study in 2015 looked at a Nubian individual from Kulubnarti. This person's genetic background seemed closer to people from the Middle East and Central/South Asia than to African populations.

In 2021, scientists analyzed the DNA of 66 people from Kulubnarti, dating from 650 to 1000 AD. Their genetic makeup was a mix of West Eurasian and Sub-Saharan African ancestries. About 60% was West Eurasian, likely from ancient Egyptians or people from the Levant. About 40% was related to the Dinka of Sub-Saharan Africa.

Modern Nubians, while looking similar to the Kulubnarti Nubians in some ways, are not directly descended from them without other genetic mixes. Modern Nubians have more Sub-Saharan ancestry and different West Eurasian ancestry compared to the ancient samples.

In 2022, DNA from the hair of a Kerma period individual (around 4000 years ago) was studied. The results showed a close genetic link to early herders from the Rift Valley in eastern Africa. These herders had about 40% West Eurasian ancestry. This suggests that herding groups moved south along the Nile River Valley.

Nubian Images

Nubian terracotta female figurine from the Neolithic period ca. 3500–3100 BC Brooklyn Museum
Nubian king with bow, Buhen Fortress, 1650 BC, Univ. of Chicago Museum
Nubian Tribute Presented to the King, Tomb of Huy MET DT221112
Nubians bringing tribute for King Tut, Tomb of Huy
Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal
Entrance to Great Enclosure, Musawwarat es-Sufra
Column and elephant – part of temple complex in Musawwarat es-Sufra
Pyramid of Amanishakheto
Jewelry of Kandake Amanishakheto
Copy of relief from Naqa depicting Amanitore (second from left), Natakamani (second from right) and two princes approaching a three-headed Apedemak.
The "Archer King", an unknown king of Meroe, 3rd century BC. National Museum of Sudan.
Bishop Petros, Christian Nubia
The Relief of Gebel Sheikh Suleiman probably shows the victory of an early Pharaoh, possibly Djer, over A-Group Nubians circa 3000 BC.
Now gone Christian Nubian wall painting in the Temple of Kalabsha