Roman Forum facts for kids
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Forum Romanum
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Surviving structures: Tabularium, Gemonian stairs, Tarpeian Rock, Temple of Saturn, Temple of Vespasian and Titus, Arch of Septimius Severus, Curia Julia, Rostra, Basilica Aemilia, Forum Main Square, Basilica Iulia, Temple of Caesar, Regia, Temple of Castor and Pollux, Temple of Vesta, Rostra Augusti, Umbilicus Urbi, Milliarium Aureum, Lapis Niger, Basilica of Maxentius
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  Roman Forum
Location in Rome
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| Location | Central Rome |
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| Region | Lazio |
| Coordinates | 41°53′32″N 12°29′7″E / 41.89222°N 12.48528°E |
| Altitude | 13 m (43 ft) |
| Type | forum |
| Part of | Ancient Rome |
| Area | 2 ha (4.9 acres) |
| History | |
| Founded | 8th century BC – AD 608 |
| Abandoned | Largely neglected from the 8th century AD onward |
| Cultures | Roman Republic, Roman Empire |
| Site notes | |
| Condition | Most buildings in ruins |
| Public access | Yes |
| Architecture | |
| Architectural styles | Ancient Roman architecture, Paleochristian architecture |
The Roman Forum, also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum, is a large open space surrounded by the ruins of important ancient government buildings. It is located in the center of Rome, Italy. People in ancient Rome called this area the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum. It was originally a busy marketplace.
For hundreds of years, the Forum was the heart of daily life in Rome. It was where victorious armies marched in parades called triumphs. People also voted for their leaders here. Important speeches were given, legal cases were heard, and public shows were held. It was also the main place for business. Statues and monuments honored the city's leaders. Today, the Forum is a large area of ruins and ongoing archaeological digs. Millions of visitors come to see it every year.
Many of Rome's oldest and most important buildings were in or near the Forum. The earliest shrines and temples of the Roman Kingdom were on its southeastern side. These included the Regia, an old royal home from the 8th century BC. The Temple of Vesta from the 7th century BC was also there, along with the homes of the Vestal Virgins. All these buildings were rebuilt later when the Roman Empire grew powerful.
Other ancient shrines, like the Umbilicus Urbis and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), became the Roman Republic's official assembly area, called the Comitium. This is where the Roman Senate and the Republican government itself began. Over time, the area became crowded with the Senate House, government offices, courts, temples, and statues.
Eventually, the old Comitium was replaced by the larger Forum next to it. Legal activities moved to the new Basilica Aemilia in 179 BC. About 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia and the new Curia Julia. This moved the legal offices and the Senate back to the Forum. This new Forum became a lively city square where Romans gathered for business, politics, legal matters, and religious events.
Later, much of the business and legal work moved from the Forum Romanum to bigger, fancier buildings to the north, like Trajan's Forum. The rule of Constantine the Great saw the last major addition to the Forum, the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This brought the political center back to the Forum until the Western Roman Empire fell almost 200 years later.
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What the Roman Forum Looked Like
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Unlike later imperial forums in Rome, which were carefully planned like Greek public squares, the Roman Forum grew slowly over many centuries. Even with efforts by leaders like Sulla, Julius Caesar, and Augustus to organize it, it developed bit by bit. By the time of the Roman Empire, many large public buildings surrounded the main square. This made the open area about 130 by 50 meters.
The Forum stretched from the Capitoline Hill to the Velian Hill. Its long sides were defined by two large buildings called basilicas: the Basilica Aemilia to the north and the Basilica Julia to the south. The Forum itself included this main square and the buildings facing it. Sometimes, it also included an extra area that went southeast to the Arch of Titus.
Originally, the Forum site was a marshy lake where water from nearby hills collected. The Tarquins drained this area using the Cloaca Maxima, a large sewer system. Over centuries, floods from the Tiber River and dirt washing down from the hills raised the ground level of the Forum. As the ground rose, people simply paved over the debris. The final stone paving, which you can still see today, was laid during the time of Augustus.
Excavations in the 1800s showed many layers of paving, one on top of another. The deepest level found was 3.60 meters above sea level. Archaeologists found burned wood there, showing that people lived in the area even at that low level.
An important use of the Forum, during both the Republic and Empire, was for military parades called Triumphs. Victorious generals would enter the city through the Triumphal Gate. They would then walk around the Palatine Hill before going down the Via Sacra into the Forum.
From there, they would climb the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. After the parade, big public feasts would be held back in the Forum. Besides the Via Sacra, other famous roads like the Vicus Jugarius and Vicus Tuscus also led to the Forum.
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The Forum's Long History
Before Rome Was Built
Archaeologists have found pottery in the Forum, Palatine, and Capitoline areas. This shows that people lived here during the late Bronze Age (1200–975 BC). In the early Iron Age, a part of the future Forum was used as a cemetery. This was around the 10th century BC. People from the Palatine and Capitoline hills might have used it. Most burials were cremations, where ashes were put in a jar with grave goods and buried. A few bodies were also buried whole. It seems that burials in the Forum stopped in the late 9th century BC.
The first archaeological finds of public buildings suggest the Forum changed from a cemetery to a public space in the 8th century BC. Part of the Forum was paved. The earliest discoveries at the Comitium and Vulcanal were offerings. This shows the area was used for religious ceremonies.
The Roman Kingdom Era
Stories of Early Rome
Roman stories say the Forum began with an alliance between Romulus, Rome's first king, and his rival, Titus Tatius. Romulus controlled the Palatine Hill, and Titus Tatius was on the Capitoline Hill. After a battle, the Sabine women stopped the fighting, and an alliance was formed. Because the valley was between their settlements, it became the meeting place. The early Forum had standing water, so the easiest place to meet was the northern part, called the Comitium. Here, at the Vulcanal, the two groups supposedly put down their weapons and made peace.
The Forum was outside the walls of the first Sabine fortress. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills joined. The original Forum was an open-air market next to the Comitium. But it soon became too busy for just shopping. As political speeches, legal cases, and other public events took up more space, other specialized markets appeared in the city. There were forums for cattle, pork, vegetables, and wine.
Rome's second king, Numa Pompilius (ruled 715–673 BC), is said to have started the worship of Vesta. He built her house and temple. He also built the Regia as the city's first royal palace. Later, Tullus Hostilius (ruled 673–642 BC) enclosed the Comitium. This was around the old Etruscan temple where the Senate would meet. He supposedly turned that temple into the Curia Hostilia. In 600 BC, Tarquinius Priscus had the area paved for the first time.
What Archaeology Tells Us
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The Forum was originally a low, grassy wetland. It was drained in the 7th century BC when the first parts of the Cloaca Maxima were built. This was a large covered sewer system that flowed into the Tiber River. More people started living between the two hills. By the late 7th century BC, the ground level of the Forum was raised in some places. This helped with drainage and provided a base for a pebble-paved area. Around the middle of the 7th century BC, old huts were taken down along the Via Sacra. Rectangular stone buildings began to replace them.
The earliest structures in the Forum were found in two separate spots. One was the site of the Comitium. The other was a group of sanctuaries: the Regia (House of the kings), the House of the Vestals, and the Domus Publica. Around 650–630 BC, the Comitium area was dug out into a deep triangular shape. It was paved with packed earth, and later with gravel. Nearby was an ancient sanctuary for Vulcan, called the Vulcanal. It was a small pit and oval basin carved from rock. The oldest items found there are from the second half of the 8th century BC. Romans seemed to know these sites were very old. They believed Romulus himself founded the Comitium and Vulcanal. The first Curia (senate house) was linked to Tullus Hostilius.
At the western end of the Forum, digs near the House of the Vestals and the sanctuary of Vesta found important 7th-century BC buildings. Archaeologists think these were early versions of the Regia, House of the Vestals, and Domus Publica (the official home of the chief priest). There was a lot of building in the Forum in the late 7th century BC, between 625 and 600 BC. In the 6th century BC, more evidence of development was found. Parts of the paving were discovered, and many terracotta decorations suggest buildings around the Forum became more detailed.
The Roman Republic Era
During the Roman Republic period, the Comitium remained the main place for all legal and political life. To create a larger gathering space, the Senate started expanding the open area between the Comitium and the Temple of Vesta. They did this by buying private homes and tearing them down for public use. Several consuls (Roman leaders) oversaw projects to repave and build on both the Comitium and the central plaza that became the Forum.
The 5th century BC saw the first Forum temples with known building dates. These were the Temple of Saturn (497 BC) and the Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 BC). The Temple of Concord was added later, possibly by the soldier Marcus Furius Camillus. Speakers often stood on the elevated platform called the Rostra. At first, they faced north towards the Senate House and the politicians. This meant their back was to the people in the Forum.
A tribune (a people's representative) named Gaius Licinius Stolo (consul in 361 BC) was supposedly the first to turn away from the elite and face the crowd in the Forum. This act was repeated two centuries later by Gaius Gracchus. This started a tradition where even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was known for changing old Roman customs. In 318 BC, the censor Gaius Maenius added balconies to buildings near the Forum. These were called maeniana. Spectators could use them to better watch the games held in temporary wooden arenas.
The benches for the tribunes were also placed in the Forum Romanum. They were first near the senate house. Later in the Republic, they were in front of the Basilica Porcia.
The first basilicas (large, hall-like buildings) were introduced to the Forum in 184 BC by Cato the Elder. This began the process of making the site more grand. The Basilica Fulvia was built on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. It was rebuilt and renamed several times, eventually becoming the Basilica Aemilia. Nine years later, the Basilica Sempronia was built on the south side.
Many traditions from the Comitium, like public assemblies, funerals for important people, and games, moved to the Forum as it grew. A notable change was the move of the comitia tributa, which was important for popular politics, in 145 BC. In 133 BC, the tribune Tiberius Gracchus was killed there by a group of senators.
In the 80s BC, during the rule of Sulla, major work was done on the Forum. The plaza level was raised by almost a meter, and permanent marble paving stones were laid. This paving level stayed mostly the same for over a thousand years. It was only after Rome was attacked in 1084 that debris began to pile up.
In 78 BC, the huge Tabularium (Records Hall) was built at the Capitoline Hill end of the Forum. This was ordered by the consuls M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus. In 63 BC, Cicero gave his famous speech against the conspirator Catiline at the Forum. He spoke in the Temple of Concord, which was sometimes used for Senate meetings. After the verdict, the conspirators were taken to the Tullianum, a nearby dungeon that was Rome's only known state prison.
Over time, the Comitium was lost due to the growing Curia and Julius Caesar's changes before he was killed in 44 BC. That year, two very famous events happened in the Forum. Mark Antony gave his famous speech for Caesar's funeral from the partially finished speaker's platform, the New Rostra. Caesar's body was publicly burned on a spot directly across from the Rostra. Later, the Temple of Caesar was built there by his great-nephew, Octavius (who became Augustus).
The Roman Empire Era
After Julius Caesar's death and the end of the civil war, Augustus finished his great-uncle's work. He gave the Forum its final look. This included the southeastern end of the plaza, where he built the Temple of Caesar and the Arch of Augustus (both in 29 BC). The Temple of Caesar was placed between Caesar's funeral pyre and the Regia. The location of the Temple and the rebuilding of nearby structures made the Forum more organized, similar to the Forum of Caesar. The Forum also saw the killing of a Roman Emperor in 69 AD. Galba was carried in a litter to meet rebels but was killed by his rival Otho's cavalry near the Lacus Curtius in the Forum.
During these early Imperial times, much business and legal work moved away from the Forum. It moved to larger and more impressive buildings to the north. After Trajan's Forum was built (110 AD), these activities moved to the Basilica Ulpia.
The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus was added at the northwest end of the Forum. It was near the Capitoline Hill and the old Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to celebrate the victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons against the Parthians. It is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The arch closed off the central area of the Forum. Besides the Arch of Augustus, it is the only triumphal arch in the Forum. Emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305) was the last great builder of Rome's city. He did not forget the Forum. By his time, it was very crowded with monuments. He fixed and reorganized it, rebuilding the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vesta, and the Curia Julia. The Curia Julia is the best-preserved building from his time in Rome. He also rebuilt the speaker's platforms at each end of the Forum and added columns.
The rule of Constantine the Great saw the completion of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This was the last major expansion of the Forum complex. This brought much of the political focus back to the Forum. It remained important until the Western Roman Empire fell almost two centuries later.
The Medieval Period
After the Western Roman Empire fell, and during the Gothic Wars, much of Rome fell into ruin. Famine, war, and a lack of strong leaders caused the city's population to shrink greatly. People moved closer to the river, leaving much of the Forum abandoned. Efforts were made to keep the Forum and Palatine buildings intact, with some success. In the 6th century, some old buildings in the Forum were turned into Christian churches. On August 1, 608 AD, the Column of Phocas, a large Roman column, was put up in front of the Rostra. It was dedicated to the Eastern Roman Emperor Phocas. This was the last major addition to the Forum. Emperor Constans II, who visited Rome in 663 AD, removed the lead roofs from the grand buildings. This left the structures open to the weather and sped up their decay. By the 8th century, the whole area was surrounded by Christian churches. They took the place of abandoned and ruined temples.
An old travel guide from the 8th century says the Forum was already falling apart then. During the Middle Ages, people remembered the Forum Romanum, but most of its monuments were buried under dirt. The area was called the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field." It was located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum.
After the 8th century, buildings in the Forum were taken apart and used to build towers and castles nearby. In the 13th century, these rearranged structures were torn down. The site became a dumping ground. This, along with debris from old buildings, helped raise the ground level even more.
When Pope Urban V returned from Avignon in 1367, people became more interested in ancient monuments. They saw them as moral lessons and as a source of stone for new buildings in Rome.
The Renaissance Period
The Roman Forum suffered some of its worst damage during the Italian Renaissance. This was especially true between 1540 and 1550. Pope Paul III used a lot of material from the Forum to build the new St. Peter's Basilica. A few years before, in 1536, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V held a triumph in Rome. This was after he conquered Tunis in North Africa. To prepare the Forum for the parade, which was meant to look like an ancient Roman triumph, the Pope's authorities tore down many medieval buildings on the site. This was done to reveal and better show off the ancient monuments.
This required clearing about 200 houses and several churches. A new "Via Sacra" was dug to pass under the arches of Titus and Septimius Severus. More prominent monuments were also dug out to show their foundations.
In 1425, Pope Martin V issued an order to start rebuilding the city. Rome was depopulated and full of ruins. The demand for building materials increased a lot, making the Forum a convenient place to get stone and marble.
Since the 12th century, the city government of Rome was responsible for protecting the Forum's ruins. This job fell to the maestri di strade (masters of roads) under the Conservatori (senior magistrates). Historically, these officials protected the ruins from destruction. But in the 15th century, the Papacy slowly took over these powers. The Pope's order in 1425 strengthened the maestri's power to protect ruins. However, by giving them papal authority, the Vatican brought them under its control.
In the 15th century, the Vatican gave out more excavation licenses. These allowed people to dig at specific sites for stone. In 1452, the maestri's power to issue their own licenses was taken away by Pope Nicholas V. This power was given to the Vatican. From then on, only the Vatican and the Conservators could issue such licenses. This shared power was confirmed in 1462 by Pope Pius II.
Because of these disagreements over who had control, the ruins in the Forum were increasingly used and stripped. In 1426, a papal license allowed the destruction of a building called the "Templum Canapare." Its foundations were burned for lime. Half the stone had to be shared with the Papal treasury. This building was thought to be the Basilica Julia. Between 1431 and 1462, a huge stone wall between the Senate House and the Forum of Caesar was torn down. This was allowed by Pope Eugene IV. Then came the demolition of the Templum Sacrae Urbis (1461–1462), the Temple of Venus and Roma (1450), and the House of the Vestals (1499), all with papal permission.
The worst destruction happened under Paul III. In 1540, he took away all previous excavation licenses. He put the Forum under the control of those building the new St. Peter's Basilica. They used the site for stone and marble. Monuments that were taken apart and burned for lime included parts of the Arch of Augustus, the Temple of Caesar, parts of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the Temple of Vesta, the steps and foundation of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and the Regia. The Conservators strongly protested against this destruction. They even asked Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) to stop all licenses for taking materials, but it was not successful.
Digging Up and Saving the Forum
The clearing of the Forum began in 1803 when Carlo Fea started removing debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus. Official excavations began in 1898 by the Italian government. The goal was to restore broken columns and other pieces to their original places. They also wanted to dig down to the lowest possible level without harming existing structures. Another goal was to identify buildings that were only partly dug up, like the Senate house and Basilica Aemilia. These state-funded excavations were led by Dr. Giacomo Boni until he died in 1925, with a short break during World War I.
In 2008, heavy rains damaged the modern concrete covering over the "Black Stone" marble near the Lapis Niger. Excavations in the Forum continue. Discoveries by archaeologists since 2009 have led to questions about Rome's exact age. One recent find is a tuff wall near the Lapis Niger. It was used to channel water from nearby underground sources. Around the wall, pottery and food scraps were found. This allowed archaeologists to date the wall's construction to the 8th or 9th century BC. This is over a century before the traditional date of Rome's founding.
In 2020, Italian archaeologists found a sarcophagus (stone coffin) and a circular altar from the 6th century BC. Experts are discussing whether it is a memorial tomb for Rome's legendary founder, Romulus.
The Temple of Saturn
The Temple of Saturn was one of the most important buildings in the Roman Forum. Not much is known about when it was first built. The original temple is thought to have been burned down by the Gauls in the early 4th century BC. However, it was rebuilt by Munatius Plancus in 42 BC. The eight columns that remain today are all that is left of this famous temple. Even though its exact completion date is unknown, it is one of the oldest buildings in the Forum. The temple was originally meant for the god Jupiter but was changed to Saturn. Historians are not sure why.
The building was not only used for religious ceremonies. The temple also worked as a bank for Roman society.
The Temple of Saturn stood in the Forum with four other temples: the temples of Concord, Vesta, and Castor and Pollux. At each temple, animal sacrifices and rituals were performed. These acts were meant to bring good luck to those using the temple. Since the Temple of Saturn was also a bank, and Saturn was the god of the Golden Age, sacrifices were made there hoping for financial success.
Inside the Temple, there were many vaults for public use and private ones for individuals. There were also parts of the Temple used for public speaking events and feasts, which often followed the sacrifices.
The Forum in Art
From the 1600s to the 1800s, the Roman Forum was a popular place for artists and architects studying in Rome to sketch. Many works by visiting artists focused on how the Roman Forum looked at the time. It was known locally as the Campo Vaccino, or "cow field," because livestock grazed there. Claude Lorrain's 1636 painting Campo Vaccino shows how much of the Forum's buildings were buried under dirt. The famous British artist J. M. W. Turner painted Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino in 1839 after his last trip to the city.
The Roman Forum has inspired artists for centuries. Giovanni Battista Piranesi is especially famous. He created 135 etchings called the Vedute di Roma ("Views of Rome"), where the Forum was a major subject. Many features shown in Piranesi's views have now disappeared.
Other notable artists who painted the Forum include Canaletto, Maerten van Heemskerck, Pirro Ligorio, Giovanni Paolo Panini, and Hubert Robert.
Other Roman Forums
Other forums existed in different parts of Rome. Remains of most of them, some quite large, still exist. The most important ones are several large imperial fora. These form a complex with the Roman Forum itself. They include the Forum Iulium, Forum Augustum, the Forum Transitorium (also called Forum Nerva), and Trajan's Forum. During the Mussolini era, most of the medieval and Baroque layers were removed. The Via dei Fori Imperiali road was built between the Imperial Fora and the Roman Forum.
There were also other specialized forums:
- The Forum Boarium, for selling cattle, located between the Palatine Hill and the Tiber River.
- The Forum Holitorium, for selling herbs and vegetables, between the Capitoline Hill and the Servian walls.
- The Forum Piscarium, for selling fish, between the Capitoline Hill and the Tiber. This is in the area of the current Roman Ghetto.
- The Forum Suarium, for selling pork, near the barracks of the city guards in the northern Campus Martius.
- The Forum Vinarium, for selling wine, in the area now known as "quartiere" Testaccio. This is between the Aventine Hill and the Tiber.
Other markets were known, but their exact purpose or location is not clear due to a lack of detailed information.
See also
In Spanish: Foro Romano para niños
- Colossus of Constantine, a huge statue once in the Basilica of Maxentius
- Farnese Gardens (1550), which overlook the Forum
- Veduta (a detailed cityscape painting)
- List of tourist attractions in Rome
