Ghaznavids facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Ghaznavid Empire غزنویان Ġaznaviyān
977–1186
Status	Empire
Capital	Ghazni (977–1163) Lahore (1163–1186)
Common languages	Persian (official and court language; lingua franca) Arabic (theology) Turkic (military)
Religion	Sunni Islam Hinduism (majority in India)
Government	Hereditary monarchy
Sultan
• 977–997	Sabuktigin (first)
• 1160–1186	Khusrau Malik (last)
Vizier
• 998–1013	Abu'l-Hasan Isfaraini (first mentioned)
• 12th century	Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah (last mentioned)
Historical era	Medieval
• Established	977
• Disestablished	1186
Area
1029 estimate	3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)
Preceded by Succeeded by Samanids Saffarid dynasty Ma'munids Farighunids Hindu Shahi Emirate of Multan Chaulukya dynasty Branches of Rashtrakuta dynasty Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty Habbari dynasty Seljuk Empire Ghurid dynasty

The Ghaznavid Empire (Persian: غزنویان Ġaznaviyān) was a powerful Muslim empire that existed from 977 to 1186. It was founded by Turkic soldiers who were once part of another empire. At its largest, the Ghaznavid Empire stretched from the Oxus River to the Indus Valley.

The empire began when Sabuktigin took control of Ghazna. He became the ruler after his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, passed away. Alp Tigin was a former general from the Samanid Empire.

Sabuktigin's son, Mahmud of Ghazni, made the empire much bigger. He expanded it to the Amu Darya and Indus River in the east, and to Rey and Hamadan in the west. However, under Mas'ud I, the Ghaznavids started losing land to the Seljuk Empire. This happened after a big battle called the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040. After this, their empire was mostly limited to what is now Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India.

In 1151, the city of Ghazni was lost to the Ghurids. The Ghaznavids got it back, but then lost it again to another group called the Ghuzz Turks. Eventually, the Ghurids took Ghazni for good. The Ghaznavids then moved their capital to Lahore. In 1186, the Ghurids conquered Lahore, capturing and later executing the last Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik. This marked the end of the Ghaznavid Empire.

Sultan Mahmud and his forces attacking the fortress of Zaranj in 1003 CE. This painting is from the Jami al-Tawarikh, created in 1314 CE.

How the Ghaznavids Rose to Power

Ghaznavid portrait from the Palace of Lashkari Bazar, dating back to the 11th century. Experts noted the turban, small mouth, and slanted eyes, which were typical Turkic features.

The Ghaznavid Empire grew from the military forces of the older Samanid Empire. Two important military families, the Simjurids and the Ghaznavids, became very powerful. They were originally Turkic slave-soldiers, known as mamluks.

After the Samanid ruler died in 961, there was a fight over who would rule next. The Samanid generals, including Alp Tigin, wanted to choose the next leader. However, a group of civilian ministers chose someone else. Alp Tigin wisely decided to leave the capital. He moved south and captured the city of Ghazna, becoming its ruler under Samanid authority.

Alp Tigin died in 963. After a few years, his slave-soldier, Sabuktigin, became the governor of Ghazna.

Ghaznavid Empire's Strongest Years

Sabuktigin: The Founder

The Ghaznavid fortress of Lashkari Bazar in Lashkargah, Afghanistan. It was built by Mahmud of Ghazni between 998 and 1030 CE.

Sabuktigin started his life as a mamluk, a Turkic slave-soldier. He later married the daughter of his master, Alp Tigin. Alp Tigin had taken control of Ghazna in 962. After Alp Tigin's death, Ghazna had a few rulers. Sabuktigin, using his military skills, eventually became the governor of Ghazna.

Once he was in charge, Sabuktigin helped the Samanid ruler in a campaign. Because of his success, he gained control over several important areas like Balkh and Bamiyan. Sabuktigin also made changes to the way land was given to soldiers, making sure they were always ready to fight.

When Sabuktigin died, he wanted his family to continue ruling. He gave Ghazna to his son, Ismail. His oldest son, Mahmud, felt left out. Mahmud suggested they share power, but Ismail refused. So, Mahmud marched on Ghazna, defeated Ismail in battle in 998, and took control of the city.

Mahmud of Ghazni: The Golden Age

Mahmud of Ghazni (center) receiving a special robe from the Caliph Al-Qadir. This painting is from the Jami' al-tawarikh, created between 1306 and 1314.

In 998, Mahmud became the ruler. He is the most famous Ghaznavid leader. Under Mahmud, the Ghaznavid Empire reached its peak. He showed his loyalty to the Caliph, the leader of the Muslim world, and was given important titles. Mahmud supported Sunni Islam and fought against other groups. He conquered many territories, including parts of the Samanid Empire and areas in India.

Mahmud led seventeen military expeditions into northern India. His goal was to expand his control and make other states pay tribute to him. These raids also brought back a huge amount of treasure. During his rule, the empire stretched from the borders of Ray to Samarkand, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna River.

Mahmud also settled about 4,000 Turkmen families in Khorasan. However, these Turkmen sometimes raided nearby towns. So, the Ghaznavid governors had to take military action against them.

Conquests in India

Mahmud of Ghazni receiving Indian elephants as tribute. This image is from Majmu al-Tawarikh, created in Herat in 1425.

Mahmud of Ghazni led many attacks deep into India. He reached cities like Mathura, Kannauj, and Somnath. In 1001, he defeated the Hindu Shahi rulers in the Battle of Peshawar. He also invaded other areas like Multan. In India, the Ghaznavids were often called Turushkas (meaning "Turks").

In 1018, Mahmud attacked and destroyed the city of Mathura. It was a very rich city. According to historical accounts, many idols were burned and destroyed, and gold and silver were taken as loot. In the same year, he captured Kanauj and made the local rulers pay tribute. In 1026, he raided the famous Somnath temple, taking a huge amount of treasure.

The wealth Mahmud brought back from India made Ghazni a magnificent capital. Historians of that time wrote about how grand the city was and how Mahmud supported writers and poets. Mahmud died in April 1030. He chose his son, Mohammed, to be his successor.

Decline of the Empire

Mahmud's Sons and Early Troubles

A coin of Mahmud minted in Ghazni. Many Ghaznavid coins were made of gold, silver, and copper. Mahmud was the first Muslim ruler to create coins with writing in both Arabic and Sanskrit/Devanagari.

Mahmud left the empire to his son Mohammed, who was known for being gentle. However, his brother, Mas'ud, wanted more power. Mas'ud fought his brother, won, and became king. He then blinded and imprisoned Mohammed.

Mas'ud struggled to keep the empire together. After a major defeat at the Battle of Dandanaqan in 1040, he lost all the Ghaznavid lands in Persia and Central Asia to the Seljuks. This led to a difficult period for the empire. Mas'ud tried to gather his treasures and rule from India, but his own soldiers stole his wealth. He then made his blind brother, Mohammed, king again. Mas'ud was later killed in 1040.

Mas'ud's son, Madood, then came to Ghazni to claim the throne. He defeated Mohammed's sons. However, the empire continued to fall apart, and many local rulers no longer obeyed Madood. Over the next nine years, four more kings claimed the throne of Ghazni.

Ibrahim: A Period of Peace

Ghaznavids in Lashkari Bazar

Figures in the wall paintings from the Ghaznavid palace of Lashkari Bazar in central Afghanistan, probably built by Masud I (1030-41); with black-and-white line drawing of the left figure, by the discoverer Daniel Schlumberger (1978). The figures wear the typical Turkic attire.

In 1058, Ibrahim, another son of Mas'ud, became king. He was a skilled calligrapher and even wrote the Koran himself. Ibrahim brought stability back to the empire. He made a peace agreement with the Seljuks and improved cultural ties.

Under Ibrahim and the rulers who came after him, the empire had a period of calm. Even though it had lost its western lands, it continued to get rich from raids into Northern India. However, they faced strong resistance from Indian rulers. Ibrahim ruled for a long time, until 1098.

Mas'ud III and the Final Years

Mas'ud III ruled for sixteen years without any major problems. He built the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III and one of the famous Ghazni Minarets. When he died in 1115, the empire showed signs of weakness. There were fights among his sons, and eventually Sultan Bahram Shah became ruler, but he was a vassal (a ruler who owes loyalty to another, more powerful ruler) of the Seljuks.

Sultan Bahram Shah was the last Ghaznavid King to rule Ghazni, their first capital. He ruled for thirty-five years. In 1148, he was defeated in Ghazni by Sayf al-Din Suri. Bahram Shah managed to get the capital back the next year. However, in 1151, a Ghorid King named Ala al-Din Husayn conquered the city. He destroyed Ghazni, burning it for seven days, earning him the nickname "Jahānsuz" (World Burner).

The Seljuks helped Bahram Shah get Ghazni back. But the Ghaznavids continued to struggle with the Ghurids, who slowly took more of their land. Ghazni eventually fell to the Ghurids around 1170.

The Last Ghaznavids in Lahore

After Ghazni fell in 1163, the Ghaznavids moved their capital to Lahore. Lahore had been their regional capital in India for a long time. The Ghaznavid rule in northwestern India continued until 1186. That year, the Ghurid sultan, Muhammad of Ghor, conquered Lahore. He captured the last Ghaznavid ruler, Khusrau Malik, and his son. They were later executed in 1191, which ended the Ghaznavid dynasty forever.

Military and Fighting Style

The main part of the Ghaznavid army was made up of Turkic soldiers. They also had thousands of Afghan soldiers from the area south of the Hindu Kush mountains. During Sultan Mahmud's rule, a large new military training center was built in Bost (now Lashkar Gah). This area was known for its blacksmiths who made weapons. After conquering the Punjab region, the Ghaznavids also started to include Hindus in their army.

The Kara-Khanid ruler "Ilig Khan" on horseback, surrendering to Mahmud of Ghazni, who is riding an elephant, in 1017. They agreed to divide the former Samanid territory along the Oxus river. This painting is from Jami' al-tawarikh, around 1306-14.

Indian soldiers, many of whom were Hindu, were an important part of the army. They had their own commander and lived in their own area in Ghazna, where they practiced their religion. These Indian soldiers were very loyal to Mahmud. They were even used to fight against a Turkic rebel, led by a Hindu commander named Tilak.

The Ghaznavid army used military practices similar to those of the Abbasid Caliphate. They also used Arabian horses for quick attacks deep into enemy lands.

Because they had access to the Indus-Ganges plains, the Ghaznavids were the first Muslim army to use war elephants in battle during the 11th and 12th centuries. These elephants were protected by armour plating on their fronts. Using elephants was a new and surprising tactic in other regions where the Ghaznavids fought, especially in Central Asia.

Culture and Legacy

Mas'ud III's Ghazni minaret in Ghazni was over 44 meters tall before part of it fell in an earthquake in 1902. It was built between 1099 and 1115 CE, next to the Palace of Sultan Mas'ud III.

Even though the Ghaznavid dynasty started with Turkic soldiers, it became very Persianised. This means they adopted Persian language, culture, literature, and customs. Many historians consider them a "Persian dynasty."

The Ghaznavid sultans were of Turkic origin, but they quickly adopted Persian ways of ruling and administration. The people who managed the daily running of the state and collected taxes were mostly Persians. They continued the administrative traditions of the Samanids.

Vessel with a bull's head spout from the Ghaznavid dynasty, late 11th to early 12th century, made of bronze. It is now in the Linden-Museum in Stuttgart, Germany.

Persian literature thrived under the Ghaznavids in the 11th century. The Ghaznavid court was famous for supporting Persian poets. Poets like Farrukhi traveled to work for them. Sultan Mahmud wanted Ghazni to be a center of learning, like Samanid Bukhara. He invited famous scholars and poets, including Ferdowsi and al-Biruni. He even tried to get Avicenna to join his court. Mahmud brought entire libraries to Ghazni, making it a hub of knowledge.

The Ghaznavids also continued the tradition of writing history in Persian. The historian Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi wrote his famous Tarikh-e Beyhaqi during this time.

The Ghaznavids became more Persian in their culture than some other Turkic dynasties of their time. They even copied their administrative system from the Samanids.

Some historians in the 16th century tried to connect Sabuktigin's family to ancient Persian kings. However, modern historians believe this was an attempt to link the Ghaznavids to Persia's old history.

Historian Clifford Edmund Bosworth explains that by adopting Persian ways, the Ghaznavids moved away from their original Turkic background. They became deeply connected with the Perso-Islamic culture. As a result, Ghazni became an important center for Arabic learning.

With Sultan Mahmud's invasions of North India, Persian culture spread to Lahore. Lahore became a major Persian cultural center under Ghaznavid rule, attracting scholars from different regions. It was also during Mahmud's reign that Ghaznavid coins started to have writing in both Arabic and Devanagari script. The Ghaznavids helped introduce many Persian customs and ways of governing to India.

The Persian culture established by the Ghaznavids in Ghazna and Eastern Afghanistan lasted even after the Ghurid invasion in the 12th century, continuing until the Mongol invasion.

Impact and Legacy

At its peak, the Ghaznavid Empire stretched from the Oxus River to the Indus Valley, ruling from 977 to 1186. Historians like Abu Nasr al-Utbi wrote about the Ghaznavids' achievements, including how they regained land from rivals like the Kara-Khanid Khanate.

A coin of Mas'ud I of Ghazni (1030–1041). It was designed similarly to Hindu Shahi coins and includes Mas'ud's name (Persian: مسعود) around the horse rider's head.

Besides the wealth gained from raiding Indian cities and collecting tribute from Indian rulers, the Ghaznavids also benefited from their location. They were an important link along the trade routes between China and the Mediterranean Sea. The Ghaznavid rulers are generally seen as important figures in spreading Islam into the Indian subcontinent.

However, they could not hold onto their power for long. By 1040, the Seljuk Empire had taken over their lands in Persia. A century later, the Ghurids took over their remaining territories in India.

The Ghaznavid conquests helped start the Turko-Afghan period in India. This period continued with the Ghurids, who eventually established the Delhi Sultanate.

List of Rulers

Family Tree of the Ghaznavid Sultans

See also

• List of battles involving the Ghaznavid Empire
• History of Afghanistan
• History of Pakistan
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties