Spanish conquest of Petén facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Spanish conquest of Petén
Part of the Spanish conquest of Guatemala and the Spanish conquest of Yucatán
Spanish entry routes to Petén during the 17th century, overlaid with the route that Hernán Cortés took in 1525
Date c. 1618 – c. 1697 Location Petén, Guatemala Result Spanish victory Territorial changes Incorporation of the Petén Basin into the Captaincy General of Guatemala
Belligerents
Spanish Empire	Independent Maya, including: Itza people Kowoj people Kejache people Yalain people Lakandon Chʼol people Manche Chʼol people
Commanders and leaders
Martín de Ursúa	Kan Ekʼ

The Spanish conquest of Petén was the final part of the conquest of Guatemala. This was a long conflict during the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Petén is a large lowland area covered with thick rainforest. It has many lakes and grassy areas called savannahs. The land rises to the south, getting closer to the Guatemalan Highlands.

The conquest of Petén ended in 1697. This is when Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi captured Nojpetén. This was the island capital of the Itza kingdom. With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent native kingdom in the Americas fell to European colonizers.

Large groups of Maya lived in Petén before the Spanish arrived. They lived mostly around the central lakes and rivers. Petén was divided into different Maya groups. These groups had a complex mix of alliances and rivalries. The most important groups around the central lakes were the Itza, the Yalain, and the Kowoj. Other groups in Petén included the Kejache, the Acala, the Lakandon Chʼol, and the Manche Chʼol.

Hernán Cortés first explored Petén in 1525 with a large group. He traveled through the area from north to south. In the early 1500s, Spain set up colonies nearby. Yucatán was to the north, and Guatemala was to the south. Spanish missionaries started working in southern Petén from 1596. But no other Spanish groups entered central Petén until 1618 and 1619. That's when missionaries from Mérida arrived at the Itza capital.

In 1622, a military group from Yucatán, led by Captain Francisco de Mirones, was defeated by the Itza. In 1628, the Manche Chʼol in the south came under the rule of the governor of Verapaz. The Manche Chʼol rebelled in 1633 but failed. In 1695, a military group from Guatemala tried to reach Lake Petén Itzá. Missionaries from Mérida followed in 1696. Finally, in 1697, Martín de Ursúa's group from Yucatán defeated the independent kingdoms of central Petén. This brought them into the Spanish Empire.

Geography of Petén

The modern department of Petén is in northern Guatemala. It borders the Mexican state of Chiapas to the west. This border mostly follows the Usumacinta River. To the north, Petén borders the Mexican states of Campeche and Tabasco. To the east, it borders Belize. To the south, it borders the Guatemalan departments of Alta Verapaz and Izabal.

The Petén lowlands are a flat limestone plain with thick forests. The area has low hills and different types of forests and soils. Water comes from small rivers and seasonal swamps called bajos. A chain of fourteen lakes runs across the central part of Petén. During the rainy season, some of these lakes connect. This area is about 100 kilometers (62 miles) east to west and 30 kilometers (19 miles) north to south.

The largest lake is Lake Petén Itzá, in the center. It is 32 by 5 kilometers (20 by 3 miles). A large savannah stretches south of the central lakes. It is about 150 meters (490 feet) above mean sea level. The hills in this area reach about 300 meters (980 feet). The savannah has poor soil, so it didn't support much farming before the Spanish arrived. It is surrounded by hills covered with dense tropical forest. In northern Petén, the Mirador Basin is another inner water area. To the south, Petén reaches about 500 meters (1,600 feet) as it rises towards the Guatemalan Highlands.

Petén Climate

Petén's climate has wet and dry seasons. The rainy season is from June to December, though it's not always clear in the south. The climate is tropical in the south and semitropical in the north. Temperatures range from 12 to 40 degrees Celsius (54 to 104 degrees Fahrenheit). It usually doesn't drop below 18 degrees Celsius (64 degrees Fahrenheit). The average temperature is about 24.3 degrees Celsius (75.7 degrees Fahrenheit) in the southeast and 26.9 degrees Celsius (80.4 degrees Fahrenheit) in the northeast. The hottest months are April to June, and January is the coldest. All of Petén has a hot, dry period in late August. There is a lot of rain, from 1,198 millimeters (47.2 inches) in the northeast to 2,007 millimeters (79.0 inches) in central Petén. The far southeast of Petén has the biggest changes in temperature and rainfall, with up to 3,000 millimeters (120 inches) of rain in a year.

Petén Before the Spanish Conquest

The first big Maya cities in Petén appeared around 600–350 BC. Petén was the heartland of the ancient Maya civilization during the Classic period (around AD 250–900). The great cities of Petén became ruins by the early 10th century AD, during the Classic Maya collapse. Many Maya people still lived there in the Postclassic period, especially near water sources.

We don't have exact numbers for the population when the Spanish arrived. But early Spanish reports say many Maya lived in Petén. They were especially around the central lakes and rivers. Before their defeat in 1697, the Itza controlled much of Petén and parts of Belize. The Itza were fierce warriors. Their fighting skills impressed both nearby Maya kingdoms and their Spanish enemies. Their capital was Nojpetén, an island city on Lake Petén Itzá. This city is now the modern town of Flores, the capital of Petén. The Itza spoke a language called Yucatecan Maya.

The Kowoj were the second most important group. They were enemies of the Itza. The Kowoj lived east of the Itza, around lakes like Salpetén, Macanché, Lake Yaxhá, and Sacnab. Other groups are less known. Their exact territories and political structures are unclear. These included the Chinamita, Kejache, Icaiche, Lakandon Chʼol, Mopan, Manche Chʼol, and Yalain.

The Yalain seemed to be one of the three main groups in central Petén, along with the Itza and Kowoj. The Yalain territory stretched from the east shore of Lake Petén Itzá to Tipuj in Belize. In the 17th century, the Yalain capital was on the north shore of Lake Macanché. When the Spanish arrived, the Yalain were allies with the Itza. This alliance was strengthened by marriages between their leaders. Later, Spanish records show fighting between Maya groups in the lake region. The Kowoj moved into former Yalain areas like Zacpeten and Ixlu.

The Kejache lived north of the Itza, between the lakes and what is now Campeche. To their west was Acalan. This area was home to a Chontal Maya-speaking group. Their capital was in southern Campeche. The Chʼolan Maya-speaking Lakandon (not the modern group in Chiapas) controlled land along the Usumacinta River. This included southwestern Petén and eastern Chiapas. The Lakandon were known for being fierce fighters. The Xocmo were another Chʼolan-speaking group. They lived in a remote forest east of the Lakandon. The Spanish never conquered the Xocmo. Their fate is unknown, but they might be ancestors of the modern Lacandon people. The Manche Chʼol lived in the far south of Petén. The Mopan and Chinamita had their groups in southeastern Petén. The Manche territory was southwest of the Mopan.

Background to the Spanish Conquest

Christopher Columbus found the Americas for the Kingdom of Castile and León in 1492. By 1580, this kingdom joined with others to form one Spanish kingdom. Private adventurers then made deals with the Spanish Crown. They would conquer new lands in exchange for taxes and the power to rule. In the first decades after the discovery, the Spanish settled the Caribbean. They set up a base on Cuba. They heard rumors of the rich Aztec empire to the west. In 1519, Hernán Cortés sailed with eleven ships to explore the Mexican coast. By August 1521, the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan had fallen to the Spanish.

Within three years, the Spanish had conquered much of Mexico. This new land became New Spain. It was led by a viceroy who reported to the Spanish Crown. Cortés sent Pedro de Alvarado with an army to conquer the kingdoms in Guatemala. The military part of setting up the Spanish colony of Guatemala lasted from 1524 to 1541. The Captaincy General of Guatemala had its capital at Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. It covered a large area, including Chiapas, El Salvador, Honduras, and Costa Rica. The Spanish took control of Yucatán between 1527 and 1546. They also controlled Verapaz from the 16th to 17th centuries. This left Petén and much of Belize independent for a long time.

Impact of Old World Diseases

A single soldier arriving in Mexico in 1520 carried smallpox. This started terrible plagues that swept through the native people of the Americas. European diseases also badly affected the Maya groups in Petén. It's thought that about 30,000 Chʼol and Chʼoltiʼ Maya lived in western Petén in the early 1500s. Between 1559 and 1721, they were greatly reduced by disease, war, and forced moves.

When Nojpetén fell in 1697, about 60,000 Maya lived around Lake Petén Itzá. Many of these were refugees from other areas. It's estimated that 88% of them died in the first ten years of Spanish rule. This was due to disease and war. While disease caused most deaths, fighting between rival Maya groups and Spanish attacks also took a toll.

Weaponry and Armor in Petén

Spanish soldiers often wore steel armor, including chainmail and helmets. However, they were impressed by the quilted cotton armor of their Maya enemies. They started using it instead of their own steel armor. Maya weapons were not strong enough to make European armor necessary. Quilted cotton armor, though still hot, was flexible and much lighter. The Spanish copied this armor, using knee-length quilted cotton tunics and Spanish-style caps. Horsemen wore long quilted cotton leg protectors. Their horses also had padded cotton armor. After the final push to the Petén lakes in 1697, the Spanish left behind many weapons. These included over 50 Dutch and French muskets, three light cannons, and several other types of cannons.

Native Weaponry

The Spanish described the weapons of the Petén Maya. These included bows and arrows, fire-sharpened poles, flint-headed spears, and two-handed swords. These swords, called hadzab, were made from strong wood with obsidian blades. They were similar to the Aztec macuahuitl. The hadzab had a thin, wide wooden shaft, about 80 centimeters (31 inches) long. It was made from a hard, dark wood called chulul.

The bows used by the Maya were almost as tall as a man. They were made from the same chulul wood. The bowstring was made from henequen fiber. Arrows were made from reeds with flint, bone, or fish-tooth arrowheads. Feathers were used for flights. In close combat, the Maya used daggers with obsidian or flint blades. These daggers were about 20 centimeters (7.9 inches) long. Maya spears were called nabte'. Sometimes the tip was fire-hardened, or it had a stone blade. Spears were used for thrusting, slashing, or throwing like a javelin. The Maya used different sizes of spears. Smaller ones were probably thrown, while longer ones were similar to Spanish spears.

Important Maya warriors wore armor into battle. Their upper body was covered by a short jacket filled with rock salt. Their forearms and legs were protected with tight cloth or leather bindings. The salt-packed cotton armor was so tough that even arrows couldn't get through it. Armor could be decorated with feathers. Common soldiers usually didn't wear armor. They wore a loincloth and warpaint. Warriors carried shields made from two right-angled wooden bars with deerskin stretched over them.

Strategies and Tactics

The Spanish knew that the Itza Maya were a center of resistance. They tried to surround the Itza kingdom and cut off their trade routes for almost 200 years. The Itza fought back by getting their neighbors to join them against the Spanish. The Spanish tried to gather native people into new colonial towns, called reducciones. Native people resisted by fleeing into the forest or joining other Maya groups that were still free. Those who stayed in the reducciones often got sick with contagious diseases.

Besides military attacks, the Spanish also used missionaries. The Dominican Order tried to peacefully convert native people to Roman Catholicism. This worked in the nearby mountains of Verapaz. But it was less successful in the Petén lowlands. The Maya could easily disappear into the rainforest, leaving empty settlements. The Franciscan Order also tried peaceful conversions. They believed that the Maya wouldn't fully accept Christianity as long as the Itza were independent. Missionaries sometimes used force, including physical punishment. They also supported the idea of "holy war" against non-Christians. Often, the Maya would only stay Christian while missionaries were present. They would go back to their old beliefs as soon as the friars left. Many missionaries were killed in the region.

Independent Maya groups often attacked Christianized Maya settlements. They encouraged these settlements to abandon their new religion and fight the Spanish. As Spanish military attacks became more frequent, some independent Maya communities asked for missionaries to avoid conflict. The Itza tried to use neighboring Maya groups, like the Yalain, as a shield against the Spanish. They might have also caused rebellions by groups already under Spanish control. The Spanish efforts to conquer the region were divided between two different colonial governments: Yucatán and Guatemala. Sometimes, the Itza would try to make peace on one side while fighting on the other.

Cortés' Journey Through Petén

In 1525, after conquering the Aztec Empire, Hernán Cortés led a trip to Honduras by land. He crossed the Itza kingdom in northern Petén. His goal was to stop Cristóbal de Olid, who had rebelled in Honduras. Cortés had 140 Spanish soldiers, 93 of them on horses. He also had 3,000 Mexican warriors, 150 horses, pigs, artillery, and supplies. He brought 600 Chontal Maya carriers from Acalan. They reached the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá on March 13, 1525.

The Catholic priests with Cortés held a mass. Aj Kan Ekʼ, the Itza king, was there. He was said to be so impressed that he promised to worship the cross and destroy his idols. Cortés accepted Kan Ekʼ's invitation to visit Nojpetén (Tayasal). He crossed to the Maya city with 20 Spanish soldiers. The rest of his army went around the lake to meet him on the south shore. When Cortés left Nojpetén, he left behind a cross and a lame horse. The Itza treated the horse like a god, trying to feed it. But the animal soon died. The Spanish didn't officially contact the Itza again until 1618. That's when Franciscan priests arrived. They said Cortés' cross was still standing at Nojpetén.

From the lake, Cortés continued south. He went along the western slopes of the Maya Mountains. This was a very hard journey. It took 12 days to cover 32 kilometers (20 miles). He lost more than two-thirds of his horses. When he reached a river swollen by heavy rains, Cortés went upstream. He crossed the Gracias a Dios rapids, which took two days and cost him more horses.

On April 15, 1525, the group reached the Maya village of Tenciz. With local guides, they went into the hills north of Lake Izabal. Their guides then left them. The group got lost and almost starved. They captured a Maya boy who led them to safety. Cortés found a village on Lake Izabal, possibly Xocolo. He crossed the Dulce River to Nito, on the Amatique Bay. He waited there for his army to regroup. By then, only a few hundred people were left. Cortés found the Spaniards he was looking for. He learned that Cristóbal de Olid's own officers had already stopped his rebellion. Cortés then returned to Mexico by sea.

Prelude to the Conquest

From 1527, the Spanish were very active in the Yucatán Peninsula. By 1544, they had set up several colonies and towns. These included Campeche and Valladolid in Mexico. The Spanish impact on the northern Maya was huge. It included invasion, diseases, and taking up to 50,000 Maya as slaves. Many Maya fled south to join the Itza around Lake Petén Itzá.

Dominican missionaries worked in Verapaz and southern Petén from the late 1500s to the 1600s. They tried peaceful conversions but had limited success. In the 17th century, Franciscans believed that the Maya couldn't be fully converted if the Itza remained independent. Many people were escaping Spanish-held lands to find refuge with the Itza. This reduced the workforce for the encomienda system, which forced native people to work for Spanish lords.

Missions in Southern Petén

The first Catholic missionaries entered southern Petén in 1596. They wanted to convert the Manche Chʼol and Mopan. The Qʼeqchiʼ of Verapaz had strong ties with the Manche Chʼol. Colonial Maya towns like Cobán and Cahabón traded with their neighbors. They exchanged quetzal feathers, copal, chili, cotton, salt, and iron tools. In return, they received cacao and achiote. Many Qʼeqchiʼ fled Spanish control to live among the Lakandón and Manche Chʼol. This mixing of people led to religious syncretism, which the Spanish couldn't stop.

From the mid-1500s, the Dominican Order tried to peacefully convert the Chʼol. They wanted to move them into new colonial towns. The Itza worried that the newly converted Manche Chʼol would lead the Spanish to Nojpetén. In 1628, the Manche Chʼol towns were placed under the governor of Verapaz. Friar Francisco Morán, their church leader, wanted a stronger approach. He moved Spanish soldiers into the region to protect against Itza raids. This new Spanish military presence angered the Manche, who rebelled and abandoned their settlements. The Itza, concerned about their southern border, may have started a Manche rebellion in 1633.

By the late 1600s, Spanish priorities changed. The Dominicans' peaceful efforts failed. Also, the British were becoming more present in the Caribbean. So, the Spanish allowed Franciscans and other groups into the region. Military options became more popular. Between 1685 and 1689, the Qʼeqchiʼ of Cobán and Cahabón were forced to help the Spanish. They helped fight the Manche Chʼol and move them to Verapaz. These actions emptied southern Petén. They also broke trade routes between colonial Guatemala and the independent Maya.

From 1692 to 1694, Franciscan friars Antonio Margil and Melchor López worked among the Manche and Lakandon Chʼol. They were eventually forced out by the Chʼol. They suggested three invasion routes into southern Petén and Chiapas. Throughout the 17th century, the Spanish struggled with the Manche. Finally, they decided to move them to an area where they could be controlled. There were perhaps 10,000 Manche when the Spanish arrived. War and disease greatly reduced their numbers. The survivors were moved to Rabinal in Baja Verapaz. After 1700, the Manche Chʼol were no longer part of Petén's history.

The Mopan population was estimated at 10,000 to 20,000 people. In 1692, the Spanish ordered a decisive action against the Manche Chʼol and Mopan. The Mopan suffered from war and disease. The few survivors were moved into Spanish reducciones in southeastern Petén. Then they were moved to other colonial settlements. In 1695, the Spanish decided to connect Guatemala with Yucatán. Soldiers led by Jacinto de Barrios Leal conquered several Chʼol communities. The most important was Sakbʼajlan, renamed Dolores del Lakandon. This was part of a three-part attack on independent groups in Petén and Chiapas.

Barrios Leal was joined by Franciscan friar Antonio Margil. Margil was an advisor and chaplain. The Spanish built a fort and put 30 soldiers there. Mercederian friar Diego de Rivas was based at Dolores del Lakandon. He and his fellow Mercederians baptized hundreds of Lakandon Chʼols. They also made contact with nearby Chʼol communities.

Resistance continued. Hostile Chʼol killed several newly baptized Christian Indians. In March 1696, Captain Jacobo de Alzayaga and the Mercederians tried to reach Lake Petén Itzá. They went east with 150 armed soldiers and native guides. They got as far as the savannah southeast of the lake before turning back. Antonio Margil stayed in Dolores del Lakandon until 1697. The Chʼol of the Lacandon Jungle were moved to Huehuetenango in the early 1700s.

Conquest of the Central Lakes

Nojpetén fell to the Spanish on March 13, 1697. This was over 150 years after the rest of the Yucatán Peninsula was conquered. It was also over 160 years after the Guatemalan Highlands were conquered. The long delay was because Petén was remote and hard to reach. Also, its Maya people were fierce fighters. During this time, the Itza used the Yalain as a shield against the Spanish from Belize. The long contact between the Itza and the Spanish helped the Itza understand Spanish strategies. This made the conquest of Petén different from the 16th-century conquests of the Aztecs, Maya, and Incas. The Spanish, however, didn't understand the Itza well. They saw them as ignorant savages whose kingdom was protected by Satan. From the time Hernán Cortés crossed Petén, the Spanish wrongly believed the Itza king (the Aj Kan Ek') ruled the entire central Petén region.

Early 17th Century Efforts

After Cortés' visit, no Spanish tried to visit the Itza of Nojpetén for almost 100 years. In 1618, two Franciscan friars, Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita, set out from Mérida. They wanted to peacefully convert the Itza. They were joined by Andrés Carrillo de Pernía, a colonial official. After a hard six-month journey, the current Kan Ekʼ welcomed them. They stayed in Nojpetén for days, trying to convert the Itza. But Aj Kan Ekʼ refused to give up his Maya religion. He said that, according to Itza prophecy, it was not yet time to convert. The Itza had made a statue of the horse Cortés left behind. Juan de Orbita was angry and smashed it. Fuensalida saved their lives with a powerful sermon. The friars left Nojpetén on good terms with Kan Ekʼ.

The friars returned in 1619. Kan Ekʼ welcomed them again, but the Maya priesthood was hostile. They convinced Kan Ek's wife to make him expel the missionaries. Armed warriors surrounded the friars' lodging. The friars were forced into a canoe and told to leave. Juan de Orbita resisted and was knocked out. The missionaries were expelled without food or water but survived the journey back to Mérida.

Before the early 1600s, western Petén had many Chʼol and Chʼoltiʼ Maya. It was an important trade route for the Itza. By the mid-1600s, these groups were greatly reduced by war, disease, and forced moves. This made the region less important for the Itza. At the same time, the Kejache became important traders between the Itza and Yucatán.

Spanish Setbacks in the 1620s

In March 1622, the governor of Yucatán ordered Captain Francisco de Mirones Lezcano to attack the Itza. He left Yucatán with 20 Spanish soldiers and 80 Mayas. Franciscan friar Diego Delgado joined them. Delgado believed the soldiers were too cruel to the Maya. He left the group to go to Nojpetén alone with 80 Christianized Maya from Tipuj. The Itza had learned of the approaching military group. They were now against any more Spanish missionary attempts.

When Mirones heard Delgado had left, he sent soldiers to bring him back. Delgado was determined to reach Nojpetén. From Tipuj, Delgado sent a messenger to Kan Ekʼ. The Itza king promised safe passage. At first, the group was welcomed in the Itza capital. But as soon as the Spanish soldiers relaxed, the Itza captured them. The soldiers were sacrificed to the Maya gods. Their hearts were cut out, and their heads were put on stakes. After this, the Itza executed Delgado.

With no news from Delgado's group, Mirones sent two Spanish soldiers and a Maya scout. When they reached Lake Petén Itzá, the Itza took them to their island capital and imprisoned them. They tried to escape, but the two Spanish, slowed by their bonds, were recaptured. The scout escaped and returned to Mirones with the news.

Soon after, on January 27, 1624, an Itza war party led by AjKʼin Pʼol surprised Mirones and his soldiers. They were unarmed in a church at Sakalum and were killed. Spanish reinforcements arrived too late. Mirones and the Franciscan priest had been tied to church posts and sacrificed. Many local Maya had also been killed, and the town was burned.

After these killings, Spanish garrisons were placed in southern Yucatán. Rewards were offered for AjKʼin Pʼol. The Maya governor of Oxkutzcab, Fernando Kamal, captured the Itza captain and his followers. They also found stolen church items. The prisoners were tortured, tried, and sentenced to death. These events stopped all Spanish attempts to contact the Itza until 1695. In the 1640s, problems in Spain distracted the government. They had no time, money, or interest in colonial adventures for the next 40 years.

Late 17th Century Efforts

In 1692, Basque nobleman Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi suggested building a road from Mérida south to connect with the Guatemalan colony. This was part of a larger plan to control the independent native groups. The original plan was for Yucatán to build the northern part and Guatemala the southern part. They would meet in Chʼol territory. Later, the plan changed to pass through the Itza kingdom.

Spanish-Itza Diplomatic Contacts, 1695

In December 1695, Spanish officials in Mérida received a visit from the Aj Kan Ekʼ's representatives. This contact was arranged by Captain Francisco Hariza y Arruyo. Hariza had sent a Christian Maya ambassador to Nojpetén in April 1695. The Itza were preparing to defend against a Spanish group from Guatemala. Still, the ambassador was welcomed and sent back with promises of submission to Spain. In August, Hariza traveled to Mérida with seven Tipuj natives offering to submit. Four of these were actually Itza diplomats from Yalain, sent secretly to discuss peace.

Friar Avendaño met the Itza-Yalain group in Mérida in September 1695. He later wrote about them. AjChan, a nephew of the Itza king, led the Itza group. He returned to Nojpetén in November but soon left for Mérida again. AjChan had family ties to the Itza, Yalain, and Kowoj. He also had family in Tipuj and his mother was from Chichen Itza. His marriage to a Kowoj woman was an attempt to end Itza-Kowoj fighting, but it failed. Kan Ekʼ sent AjChan to Mérida to negotiate peace with Spain. He hoped to strengthen his own power as the sole ruler of the Itza, even if it meant giving up Itza independence.

The Itza king's uncle and the Kowoj were against any talks with the Spanish. They saw AjChan's mission as betrayal. The Spanish didn't know about the tensions between the Maya groups. These tensions had grown into inter-Maya warfare. AjChan was baptized Martín Francisco on December 31, 1695. Martín de Ursúa, governor of Yucatán, was his godfather.

AjChan's baptism was a big diplomatic win for Ursúa. He used it to advance his career, presenting it as the Itza kingdom's final peaceful submission to Spain. This formal submission was a key moment. From a Spanish legal view, the Itza were now subjects. This meant the royal ban on military conquest could be ignored. AjChan left Mérida with his companions and a Spanish escort in mid-January 1696. He arrived back at Tipuj around the end of the month. There, he heard about fighting near Lake Petén Itzá and the killing of two Franciscans. Fearing his Spanish escort's reaction, he left them and fled back to Yalain.

García de Paredes' First Entry from Yucatán, March–April 1695

The governor of Yucatán, Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi, began building a road south from Campeche to Petén. In early March 1695, Ursúa ordered Captain Alonso García de Paredes to explore this road. García led 50 Spanish soldiers, with native guides and workers. García had experience from military trips around Sajkabʼchen. The group went south into Kejache territory. They gathered some natives to move into colonial settlements. But they met armed Kejache resistance. A fight happened in a Kejache village, killing eight Kejache warriors. Prisoners told García that many independent Maya lived there. García decided to retreat in mid-April. He probably wanted to take the captured Kejache back to Sajkabʼchen for forced labor. Captain García reported back to Ursúa on April 21, 1695.

Díaz de Velasco and Cano's Entry from Verapaz, March–April 1695

In March 1695, Captain Juan Díaz de Velasco left Cahabón in Alta Verapaz. He had 70 Spanish soldiers, many Maya archers, and native workers. Four Dominican friars, led by Agustín Cano, joined the group. The Spanish soldiers were supposed to only escort the Dominicans. The Guatemalan group, under President Jacinto de Barrios Leal, secretly tried to reach the Itza before Martín de Ursúa. This trip was kept secret from the governor of Yucatán. It was part of a three-part attack on independent groups in Petén and Chiapas.

The group went north through Chʼol and Mopan territory. They camped at Mopan town (modern San Luis). The Chʼol and Mopans feared the Itza. They claimed not to know any paths to Lake Petén Itzá. The Spanish were delayed at Mopan by supply problems and desertions. The Dominicans used the time to preach to the Mopans. Cano wrote that he converted four caciques (native chiefs). However, Taxim Chan, the Mopan king, had fled with many locals. Cano believed the Mopans were ruled by the Itza king.

First Skirmish

The Spanish believed they would meet President Barrios's group at Lake Petén Itzá. They didn't know Barrios hadn't reached the region. Díaz de Velasco sent 50 musketeers and native archers to scout on April 6. They soon found signs of recent Itza camps. The scouts found a clear road north to the Itza kingdom. The army followed it. The main force camped about 42 kilometers (26 miles) south of the lake. A smaller scouting party went ahead. It had two Spanish soldiers, two archers, and two workers from Verapaz. They also had two Chʼol-speaking native interpreters.

The scouting party reached the savannah south of Lake Petén Itzá. They met about 30 Itza hunters with spears, shields, and bows. The hunters got ready to fight. But the Mopan interpreter was told to say the Spanish were peaceful traders. The Spanish suspected the interpreter was plotting with the Itza. One of the archers pulled him away. A fight started, and the Itzas drew weapons again. The Spanish fired their muskets, killing two hunters. A Verapaz Indian charged the Itzas with a machete. The hunters fled, leaving their food and arrows.

Second Skirmish

Five days later, Antonio Machuca led a group of 12 musketeers, 25 archers, and 13 workers. They wanted to find President Barrios, scout a river route, and capture another interpreter. The main group reached the savannah near the lake. That night, one scout returned with an Itza prisoner. He was captured after a fierce fight. The prisoner said he was from a high-ranking Itza family. He had been sent to see if the Spanish were traders or invaders.

Machuca's scouting party soon returned. They reported camping 16.7 kilometers (10.4 miles) from the lake. They met another hunting party of about a dozen Itzas. The Spanish tried to talk to them, but the Itzas fired arrows. The Spanish muskets wouldn't fire because the gunpowder was wet. The Itza warriors charged with spears, axes, and machetes. The hand-to-hand battle lasted an hour, killing six Itzas. The rest retreated. Thanks to their padded cotton armor, the Spanish were not hurt. The Spanish chased the fleeing Itzas. Another fierce fight lasted an hour, killing most of the remaining Itzas. Three Itzas escaped. Their leader was knocked out and taken prisoner. Machuca's group reached the lakeshore and saw Nojpetén. But they saw so many Itzas that they retreated south.

An Itza account of this fight reached Yucatán. The Itza reported that the Guatemalan group came on horseback. About 30 curious Itzas gathered to talk. The Spanish attacked them, killing 30 Itzas, capturing one, and wounding more. A Christian Maya from Yucatán was in Nojpetén. He reported that the Itza gathered 3,000–4,000 warriors to fight Díaz de Velasco's group.

Retreat to Guatemala

On April 24, the first prisoner escaped. The same day, the injured second prisoner was taken by Machuca. This new prisoner, an Itza nobleman, said the Itza kingdom was ready to fight the Spanish. Friar Cano met with his fellow Dominicans. They discussed what to do, based on information from Machuca and the prisoner. The Dominicans criticized the Spanish soldiers for firing on unarmed natives. They also suspected President Barrios was not near the lake. Spanish soldiers were getting sick, and native recruits were leaving daily. Díaz agreed. Two workers had already died from sickness. He knew his group was too small to fight the Itza. The group immediately went back to Cahabón. The new prisoner, AjKʼixaw, was taken to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. The Dominicans questioned him. In Guatemala, AjKʼixaw learned Spanish. He returned to Petén in 1696 as a guide for another trip, but then turned against his captors. After the Spanish left, rumors spread among the Itza and Kowoj that they would return to kill all the Maya. Many areas were abandoned, including towns from Lake Petén Itzá to Tipuj and Mopán.

García de Paredes' Second Entry from Yucatán, May 1695

When Captain García de Paredes returned to Campeche in early May 1695, Governor Martín de Ursúa was already preparing more soldiers. García was immediately given extra soldiers. On May 11, Ursúa ordered García to start a second trip south. He was given 100 paid Maya workers. These workers were paid three pesos a month and didn't have to do forced labor or pay tribute. García paid for more Spanish soldiers himself, as did José Fernández de Estenos, his second-in-command. The final force had 115 Spanish soldiers and 150 Maya musketeers. Plus, there were Maya laborers and muleteers. The total was over 400 people, a large army for Yucatán. Ursúa also ordered two companies of Maya musketeers to join the group. These were from Tekʼax and Oxkʼutzkabʼ. Marcos Pot was the overall "cacique captain" of these Maya companies. A Maya company from Sajkabʼchen served as elite musketeers. They were in charge of gathering forest Maya into the reducciones. Non-Maya soldiers included Spanish, mestizos (mixed Spanish and native), and mulattos (mixed Spanish and black).

On May 18, Ursúa asked for three missionaries to support the trip. By May 30, three friars were ready, with a lay brother. Also, another group of Franciscans, led by friar Andrés de Avendaño, was sent. This second group would only stay with García if convenient. They were to continue to Nojpetén independently to contact the Itzas, with Ursúa's approval. Avendaño's group left Mérida on June 2, a week before García's group. On June 23, Ursúa learned that Guatemalan troops had taken Sakbʼajlan (Dolores del Lakandon). By this time, García was near the Kejache border.

Ursúa's plan was to build a road connecting Yucatán with Guatemala. But now he realized he was in a race to conquer the Itza kingdom. President Barrios of Guatemala had reached Sakbʼajlan and was preparing another trip. Guatemalan soldiers had already reached Lake Petén Itzá. Any road to Dolores del Lakandon would pass through empty land. Instead, the surveyor planned a route directly south to the lake. This would leave Dolores del Lakandon and the Lakandon Chʼol isolated to the west. Ursúa gave García new orders, hiding his desire to conquer the Itza. He told García to meet President Barrios at Dolores del Lakandon. But he gave him a route that would take him to the lake instead. Soon after, García ordered a fort built at Chuntuki, about 105 kilometers (65 miles) north of Lake Petén Itzá. This would be the main military base for the Camino Real ("Royal Road") project. The supply base was at Kawich. On July 27, Ursúa allowed three new militia companies of 25 men each to reinforce García. Two were Spanish companies, and one was mixed-race.

Skirmish at Chunpich

The Sajkabʼchen company of native musketeers went ahead with the road builders. They went from Tzuktzokʼ to the first Kejache town at Chunpich. The Kejache had fled, leaving much food. The company's officers asked for more soldiers from García. But before they arrived, about 25 Kejache returned to Chunpich to get their food. The nervous Sajkabʼchen guards feared a mass return. They fired their muskets, and both groups retreated. The musketeer company then arrived and charged against approaching Kejache archers. Several musketeers were hurt. The Kejache retreated into the forest without injury, mocking the invaders. The Sajkabʼchen company followed and found two more empty settlements with much food. They took the food and went back.

Reinforcements

Around August 3, García moved his entire army to Chunpich. By October, Spanish soldiers were near the source of the San Pedro River. By November, Tzuktokʼ had 86 soldiers, and more were at Chuntuki. That month, García returned to Campeche. By December 1695, Ursúa was pressured to finish the Itza conquest. He approved sending more soldiers along the Camino Real to the main garrison. These included 150 Spanish and mixed-race soldiers and 100 Maya soldiers, plus workers. An advance group of 150 mixed Maya and non-Maya soldiers met García at Campeche. They went south along the Camino Real towards the San Pedro River. The rest of the soldiers didn't leave Campeche until March 1696.

Avendaño's First Entry from Yucatán, June 1695

In May 1695, Antonio de Silva sent two groups of Franciscans to Petén. The first group was to join García's military trip. The second group was to go to Lake Petén Itza independently. Friar Andrés de Avendaño led this second group. He was with friars Antonio Pérez de San Román, Joseph de Jesús María, and Diego de Echevarría, and lay brother Lucas de San Francisco. They also had six Maya Christians. This group left Mérida on June 2, 1695. They went to Juan del Castillo y Arrué's supply base at Kawich.

On June 24, Avendaño's group left Kawich. They traveled through empty land. On June 29, they found an abandoned Maya temple, which he called Nojku ("Big Temple"). The Spanish had already passed through and broken many "idols." But the friars climbed the temple and found about 50 more ceremonial sculptures. They destroyed these and placed a cross inside. The other group of friars, on their way to join García, passed through Nojku a few days later. They found that local Maya had already placed new offerings inside. Avendaño's group continued south. They found more signs of people and arrived at Captain José Fernández de Estenos's military camp. This was at the deserted Maya town of Nojtʼubʼ.

Avendaño continued south along the new road. He found more signs of Spanish military activity. Troops were gathering locals and raiding fields for food. The Franciscans caught up with García at Bʼukʼte, about 12 kilometers (7.5 miles) before Tzuktokʼ. Avendaño's group reached Tzuktokʼ by July 10. They left two weeks later, around the time García arrived with his captives from Bʼukʼte. Before leaving, the Franciscans protested to García about the poor treatment of locals. The officers promised better treatment. On August 3, García moved to Chunpich. He tried to persuade Avendaño to stay and minister to the prisoners. Avendaño secretly left with four Christian Maya companions. He looked for the Chunpich Kejache who had attacked García's group. He couldn't find them but got information about a path to the Itza kingdom. He met four tired Sajkabʼchen musketeers carrying a letter for him. The letter said that further south, there were deserted Maya towns with only rotten corn. Avendaño returned to Tzuktokʼ and changed his plans. The Franciscans were low on supplies. The Maya they were supposed to convert were disappearing daily. Also, García was taking local Maya women and children for forced labor. The Franciscans decided on a different plan. They would go back north to Jopʼelchʼen near Campeche city. Then they would try to reach the Itza via Tipuj. But this route was blocked by the local church leaders. Antonio de Silva ordered Avendaño to return to Mérida. He arrived there on September 17, 1695. The other group of Franciscans, led by Juan de San Buenaventura Chávez, continued with the road builders into Kejache territory.

San Buenaventura Among the Kejache, September–November 1695

Juan de San Buenaventura's small group of Franciscans reached Chuntuki on August 30, 1695. They found that the army had opened the road south for another 71.1 kilometers (44.2 miles). This was almost halfway to Lake Petén Itzá. But they returned to Chuntuki because of the rainy season. San Buenaventura was with friar Joseph de Jesús María, lay friar Tomás de Alcoser, and lay brother Lucas de San Francisco. When Avendaño returned to Mérida, Antonio de Silva sent two more friars to join San Buenaventura's group: Diego de Echevarría and Diego de Salas. One was to convert the Kejache in Tzuktokʼ, the other in Chuntuki.

García de Paredes was at first unwilling to let the group go into Itza territory. But by late October, he agreed to de Silva's orders for San Buenaventura and his original companions to continue to Nojpetén. However, this never happened. On October 24, San Buenaventura wrote that the warlike Kejache were now peaceful. They told him the Itza were ready to welcome the Spanish. That day, 62 Kejache men came to Chuntuki from Pakʼekʼem. Another 300 Kejache lived there. San Buenaventura sent Lucas de San Francisco to convince them to move to the Chuntuki mission. Lucas de San Francisco destroyed idols in Pakʼekʼem. But the people were not brought to the mission because of worries about feeding them.

Instead, in early November 1695, friar Tomás de Alcoser and brother Lucas de San Francisco went to set up a mission at Pakʼekʼem. They were well received by the chief and his pagan priest. Pakʼekʼem was far enough from the new Spanish road to be free from military interference. The friars oversaw the building of a church there. This became the largest mission town in Kejache territory. A second church was built at Bʼatkabʼ for over 100 Kʼejache refugees. Friar Diego de Echevarría oversaw this. Another church was set up at Tzuktokʼ, overseen by Diego de Salas.

Avendaño's Second Entry from Yucatán, December 1695 – January 1696

Franciscan Andrés de Avendaño left Mérida on December 13, 1695. He arrived in Nojpetén around January 14, 1696. He followed the new road as far as possible. Then he continued towards Nojpetén with local Maya guides. He was with friars Antonio Pérez de San Román, Joseph de Jesús María, and Diego de Echevarría, and lay brother Lucas de San Francisco. He picked up some of these on his journey south. On January 5, they caught up with and passed the main army at Bʼatkabʼ. They continued to Chuntuki. From Chuntuki, they followed an Indian trail. It led them past the San Pedro River and over steep hills to a watering hole by some ruins. Avendaño recorded this as Tanxulukmul. From there, they followed the small Acté River to a Chakʼan Itza town called Saklemakal. They arrived at the western end of Lake Petén Itzá. The local Itza welcomed them warmly.

The Franciscans didn't know that the northern Chakʼan Itza province was allied with the Kowoj. They were at war with the Itza king. The Chakʼan Itzas took most of the gifts the Spanish brought for the Itza king. They wanted to stop friendly relations from forming. The next day, the current Aj Kan Ekʼ traveled across the lake with 80 canoes. He greeted the visitors at Nich, a Chakʼan Itza port town. The Franciscans returned to Nojpetén with Kan Ekʼ. They baptized over 300 Itza children in the next four days. Avendaño tried to convince Kan Ekʼ to convert to Christianity and surrender to Spain. He failed. The friar tried to convince the king that the Kʼatun 8 Ajaw, a 20-year Maya calendrical cycle starting in 1696 or 1697, was the right time for the Itza to accept Christianity and the king of Spain. The Itza king, like his ancestors, said the time was not yet right. He asked the Spanish to return in four months. Then, he said, the Itza would convert and promise loyalty to Spain.

On January 19, AjKowoj, the Kowoj king, arrived at Nojpetén. He spoke with Avendaño. He argued against accepting Christianity and Spanish rule. The talks showed deep divisions among the Itza. The Itza king's offer to give his kingdom to the Spanish weakened his power. Kan Ekʼ learned of a plot by the Kowoj and their allies to ambush and kill the Franciscans. The Itza king told them to return to Mérida via Tipuj. His efforts to save his Spanish guests ended his power. From then on, anti-Spanish feelings controlled Itza actions. The Franciscans were guided to Yalain. They were welcomed there. But while they were there, the Yalain heard rumors of battle and a Spanish advance. The Franciscans were shown a path to Tipuj, but their guides soon left them. The Spanish friars got lost and suffered greatly. One of Avendaño's companions died. After a month, they found their way back to Chuntuki. From there, they returned to Mérida.

Battle at Chʼichʼ, February 2, 1696

Kan Ekʼ had sent messengers to Mérida in December 1695. He told Martín de Ursúa that the Itza would peacefully submit. By mid-January, Captain García de Paredes had reached Chuntuki. He had only 90 soldiers, plus workers. Many soldiers deserted as they neared Lake Petén Itzá. They were also delayed by building a large oar-powered warship (a piragua) to cross the San Pedro River. Soon after Avendaño fled, 60 Maya warriors entered Chuntuki. They were in full warpaint and carried weapons. They claimed Avendaño sent them for religious items and another friar. This was false. They were likely scouts from the Kowoj and their allies. They spoke with García and left quickly.

García sent two Kejache scouts to the lakeshore to find Avendaño. At the same time, Avendaño's Kejache guides returned with news of his flight. The Itzas at the lake gave an open letter from Avendaño as a sign of friendship. Friar Juan de San Buenaventura was excited and wanted to go to Nojpetén himself.

García sent Captain Pedro de Zubiaur, his senior officer, towards the lake. He reached Lake Petén Itza with 60 musketeers, friar San Buenaventura, another Franciscan, and allied Yucatec Maya warriors. They also had about 40 Maya porters. On February 2, two Itza warriors approached. They told them about a recent battle between a Guatemalan group and the Itza. These Itzas guided them to a nearby Itza settlement. Avendaño's letter convinced Captain Zubiaur he could advance safely. The port town of Chʼichʼ was empty. But many canoes approached, perhaps 300, carrying about 2,000 Itza warriors. The warriors mixed with the Spanish. They began loading Spanish supplies into canoes, promising to take them to Nojpetén, one soldier per canoe. The Franciscans boarded the canoes, with two soldiers. A fight then broke out. A dozen more Spanish were forced into canoes, and two porters were beaten to death. The Spanish soldiers opened fire. The Itza retreated across the lake with their prisoners.

The Spanish retreated from the lakeshore to open ground. They were surrounded by about 2,000 Itza warriors who tried to disarm them. The Itzas captured another Spaniard and immediately cut off his head. Then about 10,000 Itza archers appeared from canoes hidden in the mangroves. Zubiaur ordered his men to fire. This killed 30 to 40 Itzas. Realizing they were outnumbered, the Spanish retreated towards Chuntuki. They left their captured companions. A Christian Maya musketeer and six other Indians fled at the start of the battle. They told García that the whole group had been killed. Zubiaur and the survivors reached the base camp at Chuntuki two days later. Ursúa later reported that the Spanish prisoners were killed at Nojpetén. AjChan confirmed this later. The bones of the dead were found after the 1697 assault. AjKʼin Kan Ekʼ, the Itza high priest, later said he tied San Buenaventura and his companion into cross shapes and cut out their hearts.

This convinced Martín de Ursúa that Kan Ekʼ would not surrender peacefully. He began to plan a full attack on Nojpetén. Getting more soldiers was now urgent. But 70 of 100 soldiers rebelled and never reached García's camp. Work on the road sped up. About a month after the battle at Chʼichʼ, the Spanish reached the lakeshore, now with cannons. Again, many canoes gathered. The nervous Spanish soldiers fired cannons and muskets. No Itza casualties were reported. They retreated and raised a white flag from a safe distance.

Amésqueta's Entry from Verapaz, February–March 1696

The Guatemalan authorities didn't know about the ongoing talks between Yucatán and the Itza. In late 1695, President Barrios planned another trip against the Itza from Verapaz. This was after criticism of Juan Díaz de Velasco's retreat. Barrios died in November. José de Escals became acting head of Guatemala. He appointed Bartolomé de Amésqueta to lead the next trip. Amésqueta marched his men through heavy rain from Cahabón to Mopán. They arrived on February 25, 1696. The Guatemalans still didn't know about the fights between García's forces and the Itza. Amésqueta's group suffered from lack of native workers and supplies. Twenty-five of his 150 men were sick. His advance stopped as they rested at Mopán. Captain Díaz de Velasco volunteered to lead 25 men to the lake. He was joined by Dominican friars Cristóbal de Prada and Jacinto de Vargas. He was also joined by AjKʼixaw, the Itza nobleman captured on Díaz's previous trip. AjKʼixaw served as a trusted guide and translator. They left Mopán on March 7. After five days, they left some sick soldiers and supplies. They then caught up with roadbuilders and their military escort at Río Chakal. The two forces combined, giving Díaz 49 soldiers and 34 workers and archers from Verapaz. Once they reached IxBʼol, near Lake Petén Itzá, AjKʼixaw was sent ahead to Nojpetén as a messenger.

Amésqueta's Attempt to Locate Díaz de Velasco

Back in Mopán, Amésqueta received more supplies. He decided to catch up with his advance party. He left Mopán on March 10, 1696, with friar Agustín Cano and about 10 soldiers. He reached Chakal a week later. But there was still no word from Díaz or AjKʼixaw. On March 20, Amésqueta left Chakal with 36 men and four days' supplies. He wanted to find Díaz's party, assuming they were nearby. After two days of intense heat, they met some Verapaz workers Díaz had left behind. They followed Díaz's trail to Lake Petén Itzá, near the Itza capital. As they scouted the south shore, about 30 Itza canoes followed them. More Itzas approached by land but kept their distance. There were many signs that Díaz's party had passed that way. Amésqueta assumed they had crossed to Nojpetén. He wrote a letter to Díaz. An Itza onlooker took it, indicating he would deliver it.

Various Itzas now approached the group, including a nobleman who exchanged gifts with Amésqueta. During attempts to communicate, the Itza became agitated and angry. No one in the Spanish group understood the Itza language. The Itzas indicated that the Spanish should go to the lakeshore along a narrow path. They should get into the small canoes nearby. One of Amésqueta's officers recognized an Indian among the Itzas. He was a Mopan who had been a soldier in Díaz's first trip. The officer thought the Mopan was trying to tell him not to trust the Itzas.

Amésqueta was very suspicious of the small canoes. He knew the Itza had 30-man canoes. He also knew that tricking enemies into small canoes was a common tactic among the lowland Maya to separate and kill Spanish intruders. He suspected AjKʼixaw had betrayed them. He thought this was what happened to Díaz and his men. As night fell, low on food, in a vulnerable spot, and with no sign of Díaz, Amésqueta retreated. His men took positions on a small hill. In the early morning, he ordered a retreat by moonlight, using only a few torches. They arrived back at Chakal on March 25. From there, they retreated to San Pedro Mártir on April 9. They faced worsening conditions, a hurricane, sickness, and rumors of enemies. The battered group set up a base camp about 37.7 kilometers (23.4 miles) north of Mopan.

Fate of Díaz de Velasco's Expedition

After Nojpetén fell, friar Cano described the fate of Díaz de Velasco and his companions. He claimed to get the information from interviews with soldiers who stormed the Itza capital and from Chʼol witnesses. Díaz's group reached the lakeshore. Local Itza told them Franciscan friars were at Nojpetén. They were cautious and asked for proof. An Itza messenger brought a rosary. Looking across the lake, they saw men dressed as friars calling them to come over. These were Itza dressed in the clothes of the two Franciscans recently killed on the island. Díaz and his companions then boarded the Itza canoes. They left 30 Maya porters with their mules and supplies.

Once on the lake, the Itza overturned some canoes and killed some of Díaz's men. Others were wounded and dragged ashore to be killed. Díaz, the Dominicans, and two other men were in a large canoe that was not overturned. They were taken to Nojpetén. A fierce struggle followed as Díaz fought with his sword, killing several Itzas. The two other men were killed immediately. The friars were beaten and executed. Across the lake, the Itza attacked the porters guarding the supplies and killed all of them. The Itza killed 87 expedition members in total. This included 50 soldiers, two Dominicans, and about 35 Maya helpers. The remains of the small group killed on Nojpetén were later found by the Spanish. They were taken back to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala for burial.

Aftermath of Amésqueta's Entry

Over the next weeks, scouts tried to contact local Mopan and Chʼol communities. They failed. Most natives had fled, leaving the forest empty. At San Pedro Mártir, Amésqueta heard about AjChan's visit to Mérida in December 1695. He learned of the Itza's formal surrender to Spain. He couldn't understand this news given the loss of his men. Conditions at San Pedro Mártir were terrible. Amésqueta abandoned the unfinished fort. Friar Cano suggested moving the Chʼol to Verapaz for better control. As a result of the failed trip, Cano's idea was accepted. The fort was taken apart. Any Maya captured in southern Petén were forcibly moved to Belén near Rabinal in Verapaz. This relocation was brutal and was criticized by several high-ranking officials.

Fall of Nojpetén

The Itzas' continued resistance was a big problem for the Spanish. Soldiers were sent from Campeche to take Nojpetén once and for all. The final attack was possible because the road from Mérida to Petén was slowly being opened. By December 1696, this road reached the lake shore, though it was still unfinished. By this time, the Itza leaders were so divided that they couldn't defend their kingdom together.

Final Preparations

In late December 1696, the Chakʼan Itza attacked Pakʼekʼem, a large Kejache mission town. They kidnapped almost all the people and burned the church. The Spanish soldiers at Chuntuki buried their weapons and retreated 21 kilometers (13 miles) back towards Campeche. From late December 1696 to mid-January 1697, Ursúa sent soldiers and workers along the road to the lake. The first group, led by Pedro de Zubiaur, was told to build a galeota, a large warship. This group was followed by more soldiers bringing supplies, including weapons, gunpowder, and food. On January 23, Ursúa left Campeche with more soldiers. This brought the total number of reinforcements to 130. The Spanish fortified their positions at Chʼichʼ and set up heavy cannons for defense.

Martín de Ursúa y Arizmendi arrived on the western shore of Lake Petén Itzá on February 26, 1697. There, he built the heavily armed galeota attack boat. It was put together at Chʼichʼ in 12 days in early March. The galeota was 14.4 meters (47 feet) long. It had 12 oars on each side and a rudder. The galeota carried 114 men and at least five cannons. The piragua longboat, used to cross the San Pedro River, was also brought to the lake for the attack. This boat had 6 oars and a rudder.

From February 28, hostile Itzas repeatedly approached the Spanish. They sometimes shot arrows but caused no injuries. At the same time, small groups of curious Itzas mixed with the Spanish. They received trinkets like belts, necklaces, and earrings.

Assault on Nojpetén

On March 10, Itza and Yalain messengers arrived at Chʼichʼ to talk with Ursúa. First came AjChan, who had met him in Mérida. Then came Chamach Xulu, the Yalain ruler. Kan Ekʼ then sent a canoe with a white flag, carrying messengers including the Itza high priest. They offered to surrender peacefully. Ursúa welcomed them and invited Kan Ekʼ to visit his camp three days later. On the planned day, Kan Ekʼ didn't arrive. Instead, Maya warriors gathered along the shore and in canoes on the lake.

Ursúa decided that more peaceful attempts were useless. A water attack was launched on Kan Ek's capital on the morning of March 13. The camp at Chʼichʼ was defended by 25 Spanish soldiers, three Maya musketeers, and several cannons. Ursúa boarded the galeota with 108 soldiers, two priests, five servants, the baptized Itza messenger AjChan, his brother-in-law, and an Itza prisoner. The attack boat was rowed east from Chʼichʼ towards the Itza capital. Halfway across the lake, it met a large fleet of canoes. They were spread in an arc, covering about 600 meters (2,000 feet) across the lake. Ursúa simply ordered his men to row through them. Many defenders had gathered along Nojpetén's shore and on the city's roofs. As the galeota approached, more canoes came from the shore, surrounding the Spanish. Itza archers began to shoot at the invaders. Ursúa ordered his men not to fire, but arrows wounded several soldiers. One wounded soldier fired his musket, and at that point, the officers lost control of their men. The defending Itza soon fled from the heavy Spanish gunfire.

The city fell after a short but bloody battle. Many Itza warriors died. The Spanish had only minor injuries. The Spanish bombardment caused many deaths on the island. The surviving Itza abandoned their capital and swam to the mainland. Many died in the water. After the battle, the remaining defenders disappeared into the forests. The Spanish occupied an empty Maya town. Martín de Ursúa placed his flag on the highest point of the island. He renamed Nojpetén as Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo, Laguna del Itza ("Our Lady of Remedy and Saint Paul, Lake of the Itza").

The Itza nobility fled to Maya settlements throughout Petén. The Spanish searched the region for them. Kan Ekʼ was soon captured with help from the Yalain Maya ruler Chamach Xulu. The Kowoj king (Aj Kowoj) was also captured, along with other Maya nobles and their families. With the defeat of the Itza, the last independent native kingdom in the Americas fell to the European colonizers.

Aftermath

Martín de Ursúa was not very interested in managing the newly conquered land. He gave control to military officers but didn't support them much. With Nojpetén safely in Spanish hands, Ursúa returned to Mérida. He left Kan Ekʼ and other high-ranking family members as prisoners with the Spanish soldiers. These soldiers were isolated among the hostile Itza and Kowoj, who still controlled the mainland. The soldiers were reinforced in 1699 by a group from Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. Mixed-race civilians also came to start their own town around the military camp. The settlers brought diseases, which killed many soldiers, colonists, and native people. The Guatemalans stayed only three months. Then they returned to Santiago de los Caballeros de Guatemala. They took the captive Itza king with them, along with his son and two cousins. The cousins died on the long journey. Ajaw Kan Ekʼ and his son spent the rest of their lives under house arrest in the colonial capital.

When the Spanish conquered the Petén lakes in 1697, the Yalain first cooperated. They helped capture the Itza king. At this time, Chamach Xulu ruled Yalain. The Yalain leaders encouraged Christian conversion to keep peace with the Spanish. As time passed, Yalain cooperation seemed to decrease. Soon after the conquest, the Yalain fled their settlements. They wanted to avoid Spanish groups who were taking Maya women for "service." At this time, the people of Yalain preferred to burn their fields and break their pottery. They didn't want to leave anything for the Spanish. The Yalain capital is recorded as having been burned in 1698.

Final Years of Conquest

In the late 17th century, the small Chʼol Maya population in southern Petén and Belize was forcibly moved to Alta Verapaz. There, they joined the Qʼeqchiʼ population. After the conquest, Petén's colonial government was split. The church was controlled by Yucatán, and the civil government was part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. There was never a strong Spanish presence in the area. It remained remote. However, the Spanish built a fortress-prison, the Castillo de Arismendi, which was finished in 1700.

The distance from Nuestra Señora de los Remedios y San Pablo (formerly Nojpetén) to Mérida was great. The difficult land and hostile natives made the road from Yucatán fall apart. In 1701, Ursúa y Arezmendi realized the road was so bad that the Spanish soldiers couldn't get supplies from Yucatán. He wrote to the King of Spain. He asked for Petén to be moved from Yucatán's control to Guatemala's. In 1703, Ursúa's request was granted. The church authority over Petén would then go to the Dominican Order.

Between 1703 and 1753, reducciones (new towns) were set up. These were at San José and San Andrés on Lake Petén Itzá. Also at Santa Ana south of the lake, and at San Luis, Santo Toribio, and Dolores in the south. Each mission town had its own minister. They reported to the vicario general with the Spanish soldiers. In the early 1700s, churches were built in five colonial towns. These were Dolores, Remedios, San Andrés, San José, and Santo Toribio. The church in Dolores was built in 1708. There was often a shortage of priests in colonial Petén. Despite objections from Dominicans, Franciscans continued to provide clergy from Yucatán. They oversaw the spiritual well-being of Petén during the colonial period.

AjTut was a lord of the northern Chakʼan Itza province. Friar Avendaño had met him. After the conquest, he moved to Mompana. This area was between Lake Yaxha and the ruins of Tikal. For some years after the conquest, he made Mompana a safe place from the Spanish. He also fought against the remaining Kowoj to the south.

New Towns Around Lake Petén Itzá

When Nojpetén fell, about 60,000 Maya lived around Lake Petén Itzá. Many were refugees. It's estimated that 88% of them died in the first ten years of Spanish rule. This was due to disease and war. Catholic priests from Yucatán founded several mission towns around Lake Petén Itzá in 1702–1703. The first towns to be gathered into reducciones were Ixtutz (now San José) and San Andrés. Both were on the north shore of Lake Petén Itzá. They were first controlled by a Spanish officer. Then they were given to Dominican friars for Christian conversion. Surviving Itza and Kowoj were resettled in these new towns.

Kowoj and Itza leaders in these mission towns rebelled in 1704. They almost took back Nojpetén. But the rebellion was quickly stopped. Its leaders were executed, and most mission towns were abandoned. By 1708, only about 6,000 Maya remained in central Petén. The new towns failed partly because the missionaries couldn't speak the Itza language.

Legacy of the Conquest

Martín de Ursúa used his conquest of the Itza to become the Governor-General of the Philippines in 1709. European diseases greatly reduced the native population of Petén. The psychological impact of defeat also played a role. The population around Lake Petén Itzá was between 20,000 and 40,000 in 1697. By 1714, a census recorded just over 3,000 people in Spanish Petén, including non-Indians. This number didn't include the "wild" Maya living in the forest away from Spanish control. By 1700, the new colonial capital of Petén was mostly inhabited by colonists, soldiers, and convicts. In the late 1700s, adult male Indians were heavily taxed. They were often forced into debt peonage. Western Petén and Chiapas remained sparsely populated. The Maya living there avoided contact with the Spanish.

San José, on the northwest shore of Lake Petén Itzá, is home to the last speakers of the Itza language. The surname Kowoj still exists. But the Kowoj and Itza have fully merged and are no longer separate groups. In modern times, there has been conflict between San José (the former Itza town) and San Andrés (the former Kowoj-allied town). This likely reflects old hostility between the Itza and the Kowoj.

Historical Sources

Hernán Cortés described his trip to Honduras in his Cartas de Relación. He wrote about crossing Guatemala's Petén Department. Bernal Díaz del Castillo was with Cortés. He wrote a long account of the conquest of Mexico and nearby regions. His book, Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España, was finished around 1568. It includes his description of the trip. In 1688, historian Diego López de Cogolludo wrote about the trips of missionaries Bartolomé de Fuensalida and Juan de Orbita in 1618 and 1619. He based it on Fuensalida's report, which is now lost.

Franciscan friar Andrés Avendaño y Loyola wrote his own account of his late 17th-century journeys to Nojpetén. It was written in 1696 and called Relación de las entradas que hize a la conversión de los gentiles Ytzaex. When the Spanish conquered Petén in 1697, they created many documents. Juan de Villagutierre Soto-Mayor was a Spanish colonial official. He had access to many colonial documents. From these, he wrote his Historia de la Conquista de la Provincia de el Itza. This book was first published in Madrid in 1701. It detailed the history of Petén from 1525 to 1699.

Archaeology

Ursúa called the western port town Chʼichʼ by the name Nich. The modern name for a point on the south side of the bay is Punta Nijtún. This name likely comes from the colonial Yucatec nix tun, meaning stone ramp. Archaeologists dug at Punta Nijtún and found a stone ramp there. Spanish troops probably built this ramp to launch Ursúa's galeota.

See also

In Spanish: Conquista del Petén para niños