History of the United States Space Force facts for kids

The United States Space Force became its own military branch on December 20, 2019. But its story, the history of the United States Space Force, actually began much earlier. It started right after World War II in 1945. Back then, the U.S. Army Air Forces began working on military space programs. General Henry H. Arnold saw space as a key area for the military, long before anyone went to space. When the United States Air Force became separate from the Army in 1947, it continued to develop military space and missile programs. It also competed with the United States Army and United States Navy for control of space missions.

In 1954, the Air Force created its first space group, the Western Development Division. General Bernard Schriever led this group. This division and its later versions were very important for creating the first U.S. military rockets and spacecraft. They often competed with the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, led by General John Bruce Medaris and scientist Wernher von Braun. When the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1 in 1957, it caused big changes in military space. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was set up in 1958 to manage military space programs. But this didn't last long, and control went back to the different military branches in 1959.

The creation of NASA in 1958 greatly reduced the Army's space efforts. This made the Air Force's Ballistic Missile Division the main military space group. In 1961, the Air Force was chosen to lead all space efforts for the Department of Defense. Air Research and Development Command became Air Force Systems Command. The Space Systems Division was created, focusing only on space. In the 1960s, military space activities became more active. Aerospace Defense Command took over missile warning and space tracking for NORAD. Strategic Air Command handled weather missions. Air Force Systems Command managed early communication satellites. In 1967, the Space Systems Division merged to form the Space and Missile Systems Organization. This group developed new communication satellites, space-based missile warning systems, and the early version of the Global Positioning System. Space forces were first used in the Vietnam War, helping with weather and communications for troops.

Because military space forces were spread out across different commands, the Air Force looked at how to organize them better. In 1979, the Space and Missile Systems Organization split into the Space Division. In 1980, Aerospace Defense Command's space forces moved to Strategic Air Command. Due to pressure from inside and outside the military, including a congressman who wanted to rename the Air Force to the "Aerospace Force," the Air Force created Air Force Space Command in 1982. During the 1980s, Air Force Space Command took over space missions from Strategic Air Command and launch missions from Air Force Systems Command. Space forces helped in conflicts like the Falklands War and the United States invasion of Grenada. Their first major use was in the Gulf War, where space forces were so important that it's sometimes called the first space war.

After the Gulf War, Congress criticized the Air Force for trying to combine air and space operations too much. The 2001 Space Commission said the Air Force favored pilots over space experts. It also said the Air Force wasn't developing a strong space culture or spending enough on space. The commission suggested creating a Space Corps within the Air Force, and later, a separate Space Force. But the September 11 attacks put these plans on hold. United States Space Command was shut down, leading to a period where military space efforts slowed. The only big change was the Space and Missile Systems Center moving to Air Force Space Command. After U.S. Space Command closed in 2002, Russia and China started developing advanced space weapons. China's 2007 anti-satellite missile test was especially worrying. It created a huge amount of dangerous space junk. On August 29, 2019, United States Space Command was reestablished.

Because of advances by the Russian Space Forces and China's People's Liberation Army Strategic Support Force, and frustration with the Air Force's focus on fighter jets, Representatives Jim Cooper and Mike Rogers proposed creating a U.S. Space Corps in 2017. While this idea didn't pass in the Senate, in 2019, the United States Space Force was officially created. Air Force Space Command became the United States Space Force, becoming the sixth military branch in the U.S. Armed Forces.

Early Military Space Efforts (1945–1957)

American military space activities began right after World War II. On June 20, 1944, a German V-2 rocket became the first object to cross the Kármán line, the boundary of space. The V-2 was used to attack Allied cities. But its designer, Wernher von Braun, wanted to use it for space travel. He came to the United States after the war. Many German scientists and their research were secretly brought to the U.S. in Operation Paperclip. This helped kickstart the U.S. space program.

On November 12, 1945, General Henry H. Arnold of the U.S. Army Air Forces wrote a report. He said the future United States Air Force needed to invest heavily in space and missile technology. This was instead of just focusing on airplanes. General Arnold had strong support from Theodore von Kármán, a science advisor. A 1946 study by Project RAND looked at whether a reconnaissance satellite was possible. It identified many future space missions, like intelligence gathering, weather forecasting, satellite communications, and satellite navigation.

The first rivalries between military branches over space happened in 1946. The United States Navy wanted to test an artificial satellite. But it couldn't get funding. It asked for a joint program with the War Department. General Carl Spaatz and Major General Curtis LeMay of the Army Air Forces said no. They believed military space was part of airpower and thus an Air Force mission. By 1948, the Navy stopped its satellite program. On September 18, 1947, the Army Air Forces became the United States Air Force. The Air Force still claimed military space as its area. But it focused more on traditional bombers and fighter jets than on long-term missile and space development.

Each of the three military branches kept their own missile and space programs. The United States Army ran Project Hermes at White Sands Missile Range. The Army saw rockets as an extension of Artillery. On February 24, 1949, the Army launched a rocket to an altitude of 393 kilometers (about 244 miles). This paved the way for future Army space work under Wernher von Braun. He later developed the PGM-11 Redstone and PGM-19 Jupiter missiles. The United States Navy did its space research through civilian labs. The Navy developed the Aerobee and Viking rockets. The Air Force put its missile program under Air Materiel Command. But it cut programs due to budget reductions after World War II.

Despite these cuts, in 1949, General Hoyt Vandenberg, the second Air Force chief of staff, ordered two reports. They concluded that if the Air Force gave up its missile and space activities, the Army and Navy might take them over. So, on January 23, 1950, the Air Force created a deputy chief of staff for research. On February 1, 1950, it activated Air Research and Development Command (ARDC). ARDC took over Air Force missile and space programs. The Korean War brought more funding to the Air Force. In January 1951, ARDC began developing the Convair SM-65 Atlas missile. But some Air Force leaders were doubtful, which slowed development. In April 1951, Project RAND released studies on military satellite development. These were well-received, and ARDC started several satellite design programs. In late 1953, ARDC named its satellite program Weapons Systems 117L (WS-117L), also called the Advanced Reconnaissance System.

To speed up missile development, Assistant Secretary of the Air Force Trevor Gardner formed the Strategic Missiles Evaluation Committee. This committee, led by John von Neumann, recommended changes. These findings led to the creation of the Western Development Division (WDD) on July 1, 1954. Brigadier General Bernard Schriever led WDD. It was given full responsibility for all missile development.

WDD used a new method called "parallel development." This meant developing multiple versions at once. It cost more but ensured faster development. Its main program was the Convair SM-65 Atlas missile. They also developed the Martin Marietta HGM-25A Titan I as a backup. Both missiles eventually went into service. On October 10, 1955, responsibility for military satellites, including the Advanced Reconnaissance System, moved to the Western Development Division.

In August 1954, Congress approved developing a satellite for the International Geophysical Year. All military branches wanted to launch a satellite. But the Department of Defense said it shouldn't interfere with the Air Force's missile program. The Army and Navy proposed Project Orbiter, led by Army Major General John Bruce Medaris and Wernher von Braun. The Navy also proposed Project Vanguard. The Air Force initially didn't want to join, focusing on military programs. But the Department of Defense told them to submit a proposal. In the end, the Defense Department chose the Navy's Project Vanguard.

On August 1, 1957, the Western Development Division became the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division (AFBMD). Two months later, on October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1. This was a big surprise and embarrassment for the United States. General Schriever, a top Air Force space officer, had been told not to talk about space publicly. But after Sputnik 1, this rule was removed.

After Sputnik: New Organizations (1957–1961)

After Sputnik 1 launched, President Dwight D. Eisenhower made big changes to U.S. space programs. The Soviet Union launched Sputnik 2 on November 3, 1957, with the dog Laika aboard. On November 8, 1957, the Department of Defense allowed the Army Ballistic Missile Agency to prepare to launch Explorer 1. This was a backup in case the Navy's Project Vanguard failed. On January 31, 1958, the Army launched Explorer 1. It became the first American satellite and the third satellite to orbit Earth.

Creating the Advanced Research Projects Agency

The Air Force argued that it should control all U.S. space programs, both military and civilian. They worried that Congress favored the Army's space program. The Air Force started a public campaign, calling space an extension of its mission. They even used the new word "aerospace" to describe the continuous area from Earth's atmosphere to outer space. The Air Force tried to create a Department of Astronautics. But Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy stopped it. Instead, he announced on December 20 that the Defense Department would create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). This agency would combine the space programs of the Army, Navy, and Air Force.

On January 24, 1958, the Air Force presented its Astronautics Development Program. It listed five major space systems the Air Force wanted to pursue. These included manned hypersonic research, the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar orbital glider, the Advanced Reconnaissance System (WS-117L), and even a plan to put an Air Force base on the Moon (Lunex Project).

ARPA was officially created on February 7, 1958. It took over control of space programs from the military branches. The goal was to reduce rivalries and avoid unnecessary duplication. ARPA didn't have its own labs. Instead, it assigned projects to the different services. Projects transferred to ARPA included the Navy's Project Vanguard and other satellite programs. The Air Force's WS-117L Advanced Reconnaissance System was split into three programs: the Sentry reconnaissance satellite, the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS) infrared sensor, and the Discoverer program (a secret cover for the Corona spy satellite).

ARPA's methods were unsettling to military leaders because it bypassed the usual chain of command. ARPA had a complex relationship with the Air Force, which wanted to be the only military space service. However, ARPA gave the Air Force 80% of all military space programs. It also supported the Air Force's plan to put a military person in space. The Man in Space Soonest program aimed to put military astronauts on the Moon. The Army and Navy also had ambitions for manned spaceflight, but their proposals were rejected. The Air Force decided to work with ARPA to gain control of all military space programs. ARPA was the main national space agency for much of 1958. It even carried out civilian space missions, like the Pioneer program of lunar probes, using military resources.

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was created on July 29, 1958. President Eisenhower wanted it to be the U.S. civilian space agency. NASA started operations on October 1, 1958. It took over personnel and facilities from the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). Most of NASA's space program came from the Defense Department, especially ARPA and the military services. The Navy willingly gave up its space program, including Project Vanguard. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division transferred its Man in Space Soonest program, which became the core of Project Mercury. It also transferred the Pioneer program lunar missions.

The Army's space program was hit hardest by these transfers. Major General Medaris, commander of the Army Ordnance Missile Command, fought against it. But almost all of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency, including von Braun's team, moved to NASA. This ended any hope of an independent Army space program. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division benefited greatly. Its rivals, the Army and Navy, were largely out of the picture. AFBMD leaders quickly saw that working with NASA was the best way to keep their lead in military space. They provided launch support, facilities, and rockets to NASA. ARPA's power also decreased when Congress created the Director of Defense Research and Engineering in 1958. This gave the military services more authority in space.

Gaining the Military Space Mission

In February 1959, the Air Force realized its space efforts were weak. To become the main service in space, it needed to develop its own strong space program. It also needed to improve relationships with ARPA and NASA. The Air Force launched a big campaign to show that it was an "Aerospace" service. It argued that space missions were a natural extension of its air responsibilities. In spring 1959, the Air Force listed twelve major military uses for space. These included spy satellites, weather satellites, communication satellites, and navigation aids.

The Air Force argued that ARPA should focus on policy. It believed project engineering should be left to the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. It also said the Air Force should provide common items like rockets to NASA. This would let NASA focus on science. General Schriever supported this view. He testified to Congress that the Air Force's responsibilities would include ballistic missiles, satellites, and spacecraft. He also said ARPA should be dissolved.

The Air Force's arguments were strengthened by the success of its programs. The Samos reconnaissance satellite was to be launched by an Atlas-Agena rocket. Strategic Air Command would use it for spy data. The Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS) would use infrared sensors to warn of missile attacks. It would be operated by Air Defense Command for NORAD. The Air Force also continued the secret Corona program, publicly called Project Discoverer. This used Thor-Agena rockets launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base. The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division also helped other services. It launched the Navy's Transit navigation satellites and the Army's Notus communication satellite. AFBMD continued to develop rockets like the Thor, Atlas, and Titan.

One of ARPA's most important programs was the Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS). This system aimed to combine the space surveillance systems of different services. The Air Force contributed Spacetrack. The Navy operated the Navy Space Surveillance System (NAVSPASUR). There was strong disagreement between the Air Force and Navy over who would operate the system. The Joint Chiefs of Staff had to decide.

The Air Force Ballistic Missile Division continued to support NASA. It built facilities at Patrick Air Force Base and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. It also provided rockets and launch support for NASA's Pioneer program and Television Infrared Observation Satellite (Tiros) weather satellites. One of the most important supports was for Project Mercury, NASA's first human spaceflight program. AFBMD provided Atlas LV-3B rockets for orbital flights and medical officers. Much of its medical knowledge came from German scientists who had worked with the Luftwaffe in World War II. The world's first Department of Space Medicine was created in 1949.

Even though NASA was in charge of most manned spaceflight, the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division kept developing the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar orbital glider. The X-20 was meant to be the first true spaceplane.

Rivalries over space continued in 1959. Army Major General Medaris testified to Congress that the Air Force Ballistic Missile Agency didn't cooperate with the Army. Admiral Arleigh Burke, the Navy's chief of operations, proposed creating a joint Defense Astronautical Agency. Army General Maxwell D. Taylor supported this. But Air Force General Thomas D. White opposed it, saying space was the Air Force's domain. This Army-Navy effort pushed General Schriever to try to get the Air Force to control as much of the military space mission as possible. He argued that the Air Force had always operated in "aerospace." He said the Air Force should be the main agency for military satellites.

Ultimately, the secretary of defense decided that a Defense Astronautical Agency was not needed. He denied the request for a joint Mercury Task Force. Instead, he appointed Air Force Major General Donald Norton Yates to lead military support for NASA's manned missions. He also gave the Air Force responsibility for developing, producing, and launching space rockets. Satellite operations would be assigned case-by-case, but the Air Force got most of these responsibilities. The idea of a joint space command would become a reality 25 years later as United States Space Command.

On December 30, 1959, ARPA's role as the sole controller of military space programs ended. Responsibilities went back to the individual services.

On May 1, 1960, a Central Intelligence Agency Lockheed U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. This limited spy flights and led Congress to increase funding for space-based reconnaissance like Samos and MIDAS. On June 10, 1960, President Eisenhower ordered a review of space-based intelligence. He concluded that Samos, Corona, and U-2 were national assets. They should be managed by a civilian agency within the Defense Department, not a single military service. On September 6, 1961, the Office of Missile and Satellite Systems became the National Reconnaissance Office. This office took over all military space reconnaissance programs. Only MIDAS and the Vela nuclear detection satellites remained with the Air Force.

On June 3, 1960, the Air Force created the Aerospace Corporation. This organization provided technical space expertise. It became responsible for 12 space programs. Aerospace would later provide engineering and technical guidance for almost every Air Force and Space Force missile and space program.

Kennedy Administration and Air Force Systems Command

When John F. Kennedy became president, he put a new focus on space. He appointed Jerome Wiesner to review military and civilian space. The Wiesner Report criticized the fragmented military space program. It recommended that one agency or service be responsible for all military space. It said the Air Force was the logical choice. Soon after, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara designated the Air Force as the lead agency for military space. It was responsible for "research, development, test, and engineering" of Defense Department space programs.

In early 1961, Deputy Secretary of Defense Roswell Gilpatric told General White that the Air Force would get major responsibility for space if it "put its house in order." This meant fixing the split responsibility for research and development and buying. General Schriever, now commander of Air Research and Development Command, agreed. He said the Air Force couldn't handle the military space mission unless one command handled all aspects. In September 1960, General White allowed General Schriever to begin reorganizing. This led to Air Research and Development Command becoming Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) on April 1, 1961. AFSC became responsible for all research, development, and buying of aerospace and missile systems. General Schriever was promoted to general and became AFSC's first commander.

Air Force Systems Command was organized into four divisions. The Space Systems Division (SSD) was created in Los Angeles. It took over the space parts of the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division. The Ballistic Missile Division handled ballistic missiles.

The Space Systems Division quickly got to work. On March 20, 1961, the Gardner Report was submitted. It said the U.S. couldn't catch up to the Soviet Union in space for three to five years without a big increase in Defense Department space spending. It also said a comprehensive lunar landing program was needed.

On April 12, 1961, Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space. This prompted Secretary McNamara to order a review of U.S. space programs. The Holzapple Report, submitted on May 1, 1961, called for a NASA-led lunar landing program with strong Air Force support.

Space Forces in the Cold War (1961–1982)

The Air Force becoming the lead agency for space and the creation of the Space Systems Division in 1961 made it the main military space power. By May 1961, the Kennedy Administration gave NASA responsibility for the lunar landing mission. But the Space Systems Division was still expected to provide personnel, rockets, and ground support to NASA.

In 1961, major space programs like Samos and Spacetrack became operational. Developmental programs like MIDAS and the Project SAINT satellite inspector received more funding. This was partly due to President Kennedy's push for an integrated national space program. By spring 1961, the Air Force was responsible for 90% of military space efforts.

Manned Military Spaceflight and NASA Support

After Soviet cosmonauts Yuri Gagarin and Gherman Titov orbited Earth, Air Force Systems Command pushed harder for a manned military space program. General Curtis LeMay compared it to airpower in World War I. He said that just as airplanes went from peaceful reconnaissance to combat, space would too. This view became common. The Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar orbital flight program was sped up.

On September 21, 1961, the Air Force's first formal space plan was finished. It called for an aggressive military space program. It recommended continuing spy satellite programs and developing orbital weapons and anti-satellite systems. NASA and the Space Systems Division worked closely on rocket launches. The Space Systems Division developed the Titan IIIC rocket, which could launch heavy payloads. They also worked together on the Apollo program, choosing the launch site at Cape Canaveral. An agreement made NASA responsible for the lunar program's costs, while the Space Systems Division managed the launch range. On February 24, 1962, the Department of Defense made the Air Force the lead agency for NASA support.

The Space Systems Division provided strong support to Project Mercury. It provided three of the Mercury Seven astronauts, launch sites, rockets, and rescue forces. It planned similar support for Project Gemini. In April 1962, a joint position was created at NASA Headquarters to manage manned spaceflight.

On June 11, 1962, The New York Times reported on the SAINT program. It claimed the Air Force wanted to put weapons in space. This caused a big public outcry. Secretary McNamara later canceled the MODS experimental space station and the Blue Gemini program. He told the Space Systems Division to work through NASA's Project Gemini instead.

Project Gemini was managed by NASA. But it had a joint planning board co-chaired by NASA and the Air Force. The Space Systems Division provided significant support. This included nine of the sixteen Gemini astronauts, launch sites, rockets, and rescue forces.

Even before the Apollo Program started, NASA and the Space Systems Division thought about future space programs. Secretary McNamara continued to cut Space Systems Division programs. On December 10, 1963, he allowed the Space Systems Division to develop the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL). This was an orbital military spy space station. But it came at the cost of canceling the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar orbital fighter. MOL was approved for full development in 1965. But it was canceled on June 10, 1969, because uncrewed systems became more reliable and MOL was too expensive.

General Schriever's retirement in 1966 also changed Air Force space organization. His successor, General James Ferguson, merged the Ballistic Missile Division and Space Systems Division. This created the Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO) on July 1, 1967. SAMSO continued to support the Apollo program, providing astronauts, launch sites, and rescue forces.

Military Satellite Communications

World War II showed the need for better military communications. In July 1958, ARPA assigned the Army Signal Corps Project SCORE, the world's first communications satellite. On December 18, 1958, an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division SM-65B Atlas launched it. It broadcast a Christmas greeting from President Eisenhower. In October 1960, the Army Signal Corps launched Courier 1B. ARPA began planning for a strategic geosynchronous communication system in 1958. In February 1960, these programs were combined into Project Advent. However, the Defense Department was combining military communication systems under the Defense Communications Agency. Project Advent was very ambitious. But it was canceled on May 23, 1962, due to high costs and new technology.

After Project Advent failed, the Defense Department turned to the Aerospace Corporation. In summer 1962, the Space Systems Division got approval to develop the Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP). This would provide communications in the super high frequency (SHF) band. The Space Systems Division would control the spacecraft and rocket. The Army would handle the ground part. IDCSP development was difficult. Secretary McNamara questioned if the military needed its own satellites. But after failed talks with a civilian company and security concerns, he decided to move forward with military satellites. The development of the Titan IIIC rocket led to IDCSP satellites being placed in near-synchronous orbits.

The IDCSP was meant to be an experiment, but it was so successful that it became an operational system. The first seven satellites launched on June 16, 1966. The second launch failed. The third launch on January 18, 1967, put eight satellites into orbit. By June 13, 1968, 26 satellites were in orbit. The Defense Communications Agency declared the system operational and renamed it the Initial Defense Satellite Communications System (IDSCS).

By mid-1968, 36 ground terminals, managed by the Army, completed the system. These terminals were in places like Colorado, West Germany, Hawaii, and South Vietnam. In 1967, the Air Force showed off the IDCSP. It connected Secretary of the Air Force Harold Brown directly with the commander in South Vietnam. The IDSCS later became known as the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase I (DSCS I). DSCS I was known for its reliability. Many satellites worked for years beyond their expected lifespan. It also served as the design for British and NATO satellites.

DSCS I had limitations. Work began on the Defense Satellite Communications System Phase II (DSCS II) to fix these. Preliminary work started in 1964. The Space and Missile Systems Organization planned for four satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The first two satellites launched on November 2, 1971. After redesigns due to failures, the second set launched on December 13, 1973. The constellation was declared operational in February 1974. The third launch failed. The constellation was later completed. By the 1980s, DSCS II provided strategic communications. The last DSCS II satellite was decommissioned in 1993. Design for DSCS III began in 1974.

The Space Systems Division also supported experimental satellites, like the Lincoln Experimental Satellite series. SAMSO also contracted for the TACSAT communications satellite. It supported Apollo 9 recovery efforts. The Navy, impressed by TACSAT, began developing the Fleet Satellite Communications System (FLTSATCOM) with SAMSO. SAMSO received part of the spacecraft's capabilities, forming the Air Force Satellite Communications System (AFSATCOM). This was used for global communications for nuclear forces.

Military Weather Observation Satellites

The idea of weather satellites had been around for a while. Weather forecasting was always important for the military. But it was hard to get observations over enemy land or the open ocean. A 1946 RAND report said weather observations over enemy territory would be the most valuable satellite capability. By 1961, the Space Systems Division began studying military weather satellites. But NASA had authority to develop weather satellites for all government users.

NASA's Television Infrared Observation Satellite (TRIOS) was designed to provide weather data. TIROS-1 launched on April 1, 1960. With TRIOS's success, the Department of Defense, Department of Commerce, and NASA agreed to develop a single weather system in April 1961.

In 1963, the Aerospace Corporation recommended that the military develop its own weather satellite system. The Space Systems Division began developing the Defense Satellite Applications Program (DSAP). Its existence was kept secret until April 17, 1973. Then, it was decided to use its weather data to support the Vietnam War and share declassified data. In December 1973, it was renamed the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP).

Early DMSP satellites sent data to bases in Washington and Maine. From there, it went to the Air Force Global Weather Center. Tactical data went to mission planners in Vietnam. The fifth block of DMSP satellites launched on Thor-Burner rockets. In 1973, it became a program with Army and Navy participation.

DMSP was operated by Strategic Air Command's 4000th Support Group starting in 1963.

Global Positioning System Development

Satellite navigation systems were based on radio navigation. But space-based systems could provide more accurate, three-dimensional positioning anywhere on Earth. On April 13, 1960, an Air Force Ballistic Missile Division rocket launched the Navy's first Transit navigation satellite. Transit provided 600-foot accuracy for ships. But it was too slow for high-speed aircraft and missiles.

In 1963, the Aerospace Corporation suggested the Space Systems Division start work on Project 621B (Satellite System for Precise Navigation). This aimed to provide accurate, all-weather positioning data worldwide. The Navy also worked on Timation. In 1968, the Defense Department created a committee to coordinate these programs. In 1972, Air Force Colonel Bradford Parkinson worked to combine Project 621B and Timation. On April 17, 1973, Deputy Secretary of Defense Bill Clements unified them under the SAMSO-led Defense Navigation Satellite Development Program. The program adopted the Air Force's signal structure and the Navy's orbital plan and atomic clocks. On May 2, 1974, it was renamed the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS).

Space-Based Missile Warning Systems

National reconnaissance programs were assigned to the National Reconnaissance Office in 1961. But strategic missile warning programs stayed within the military services, especially the Air Force. The Space Systems Division managed two of these: the Missile Defense Alarm System (MIDAS) satellites, which used infrared sensors to detect missile launches, and Vela Hotel satellites, which detected nuclear explosions to monitor a treaty.

Project Vela began in response to international concerns. It was a joint Defense Department-United States Atomic Energy Commission program. It included Vela Hotel, a group of space-based sensors for nuclear detonations. ARPA assigned the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division responsibility for the spacecraft and rockets. The first operational Vela Hotel satellites launched on October 16, 1963. In the 1970s, dedicated Vela Hotel satellites were replaced by sensors on Defense Support Program and Navstar Global Positioning System satellites.

MIDAS had many problems. In fall 1960, NORAD leaders urged the Air Force to speed up the MIDAS program. This caused tension between the Air Force Ballistic Missile Division, which wanted to continue research, and Air Defense Command, which wanted to use it operationally. The final MIDAS plan scheduled twenty-seven launches. NORAD was approved as the operational command. Air Defense Command wanted eight satellites to cover the Soviet Union. But after several test flights, MIDAS was reduced to a research program. It was ended in 1966 without becoming operational.

MIDAS was replaced by the Defense Support Program (DSP) in August 1966. DSP was meant to monitor Soviet nuclear weapons and replace ground-based warning systems. In November 1970, the first DSP satellite launched. Operational control of DSP was by NORAD.

Space Defense Operations

After debate between the Air Force and Navy, the Joint Chiefs of Staff gave operational command of the Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS) to NORAD. The Air Force part, Spacetrack, was assigned to Air Defense Command. On February 14, 1961, the 1st Aerospace Surveillance and Control Squadron was activated to operate the SPADATS data center. On February 1, 1961, NORAD took operational command of the Navy Space Surveillance System (NAVSPASUR).

The 9th Aerospace Defense Division was responsible for all Air Defense Command space forces. This included MIDAS, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System, and SPADATS.

Space surveillance operations were conducted by the 73rd Aerospace Surveillance Wing starting in 1967. Early Spacetrack sensors included radars and cameras. By 1965, the system grew to include more radars. In the 1970s, the Baker-Nunn camera network was replaced by the Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) network.

The 10th Aerospace Defense Group operated Weapon System 437, a nuclear anti-satellite weapon system.

In recognition of space defense's importance, Air Defense Command was renamed Aerospace Defense Command on January 15, 1968.

Space Launch and Ground Support

The Space Systems Division's control over space launch vehicles was a key reason for its leadership in space. Early missiles like the PGM-17 Thor and SM-65 Atlas were replaced by solid-fueled missiles for combat. But the Atlas and Thor found new life as the main rockets for the Space Systems Division.

The Douglas Aircraft Company Thor rocket first launched into space in December 1959. It mainly launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base. Different versions included the Thor-Able and Thor-Delta.

The General Dynamics Astronautics Atlas rocket was more powerful than the Thor. It launched heavier payloads from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. Many launch vehicles were based on the SM-65D Atlas, including the Atlas SLV-3 and Atlas LV-3B, which launched the last four Project Mercury flights. Decommissioned Atlas missiles were converted into launch vehicles.

While Thor and Atlas were medium rockets, the Martin Titan IIIC was a heavy rocket. It was the first powerful enough to launch payloads into geosynchronous orbit. Its first launch was on June 18, 1965. The Titan IIIC's success led some to call it the "DC-3 of the Space Age."

The Space Systems Division's main launch sites were Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida and Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. Cape Canaveral was chosen after World War II for missile tests. In the 1960s, it expanded greatly to support NASA's manned spaceflights. Vandenberg Air Force Base was used for testing missiles and for polar launches. In 1971, Vandenberg was chosen for Space Shuttle launches.

The Air Force Satellite Control Facility was a global system of tracking, telemetry, and control stations. Its central control facility was in California. The first tracking stations were set up in 1958.

This focus on space led to organizational changes. The Eastern and Western Test Ranges were combined under Air Force Systems Command in 1964. The Air Force also took over the satellite tracking network. These changes were sometimes reversed, but the Space Systems Division kept control of the Satellite Control Facility. The Space and Missile Systems Organization was created in 1967. It formed the Space and Missile Test Center in 1970, combining all Western Range activities. This was completed in 1977 when the Eastern Test Range was also assigned to SAMSO.

Space Forces in the Vietnam War

The first time space forces were used in combat was during the Vietnam War. Weather and communication satellite support were very important for commanders.

The Defense Meteorological Support Program was critical for the Seventh Air Force. It needed clear skies for its operations. Starting in 1965, Strategic Air Command provided DMSP information to Air Force planners. NASA also provided information from its Nimbus satellites. DMSP support helped operations like the Navy's destruction of the Thanh Hóa Bridge and Operation Ivory Coast to rescue prisoners of war.

Satellite communications began in June 1966. A terminal was activated at Tan Son Nhut Air Base using NASA's Synchronous Communications Satellite. Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program terminals were installed in Saigon and Nha Trang in July 1967. This allowed high-resolution photos to be sent between Saigon and Washington D.C. Commercial satellite communications also helped.

Air Force Space Command (1982–2019)

Aerospace Defense Command Ends

Despite rapid growth in military space forces, there was no single command for them. Air Force Systems Command handled research, development, and buying. Aerospace Defense Command (ADCOM) handled space surveillance and missile defense for NORAD. Strategic Air Command operated weather satellites. NORAD's main mission shifted to surveillance and warning, leading to a big reorganization of ADCOM. ADCOM's air defense mission was cut, replaced by space-based warning systems.

The Space Shuttle began as a joint Defense Department-NASA program. The Space and Missile Systems Organization was the Defense Department's lead. The Space Shuttle promised reusable spacecraft and an end to expensive rockets. Military needs were considered in the shuttle's design. It was meant to replace most expendable rockets. The Defense Department and NASA chose Kennedy Space Center and Vandenberg Air Force Base as shuttle launch sites.

The military use of the shuttle led to a competition among Air Force commands for the space mission starting in 1974. Air Force Systems Command was the lead for space research and development. Aerospace Defense Command wanted operational responsibility for the Space Shuttle because of its experience. Other commands also tried to claim it. This debate led the Defense Department and Air Force to rethink how space systems should be assigned.

Even with this fragmentation, operational space systems grew rapidly. By February 1977, DSCS III development began. GPS development also sped up. Aerospace Defense Command's DSP provided constant surveillance of Soviet and Chinese rocket launches. The Space Detection and Tracking System (SPADATS) continued to expand. The space surveillance system showed the divide between space communities. Aerospace Defense Command focused on NORAD needs, while Air Force Systems Command focused on research.

New Soviet anti-satellite missile tests in 1976 added urgency. The U.S. had no anti-satellite capability. In fall 1976, President Ford authorized development of the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle-launched ASM-135 ASAT.

In 1977, the Air Staff released a report called the Green Book Study. It called for the inactivation of Aerospace Defense Command. Its air defense mission would go to Tactical Air Command, and its space assets to Strategic Air Command. General James E. Hill fought this, arguing that Aerospace Defense Command should become a Space Defense Command. United States Under Secretary of the Air Force Hans Mark also worried about merging defensive systems with offensive ones. He lobbied for Aerospace Defense Command to be the main space command. But Air Force leadership didn't seem to understand space's importance. On March 31, 1980, Aerospace Defense Command was inactivated as a major command. Its space activities moved to Strategic Air Command.

Air Force Space Command is Created

On October 1, 1979, the Space and Missiles Systems Organization split. This was partly due to the strain of developing the Space Shuttle and the LGM-118 Peacekeeper at the same time. Air Force Systems Command also created a deputy commander for space operations. This person was responsible for non-acquisition space functions. In 1979, Air Force doctrine recognized space as a mission area for the first time. In 1981, a Directorate for Space Operations was created within the Air Staff.

In 1981, Representative Ken Kramer proposed renaming the Air Force to the "Aerospace Force." This made Air Force leaders uncomfortable. They committed to creating a major command for space.

On September 1, 1982, Space Command was established at Peterson Air Force Base. General James V. Hartinger was its first commander. He also commanded NORAD and Aerospace Defense Command. The Air Force intended for Space Command to become a unified combatant command. This was needed to get Army and Navy support.

The creation of Space Command on September 1, 1982, began the centralization of space into one organization. This would lead to its successor, the United States Space Force. In late 1982 and early 1983, Strategic Air Command began transferring its space activities to Space Command. This included its headquarters, bases, and programs like DMSP, DSP, and the developing Milstar and GPS.

Milstar was meant to provide communication for national leaders. GPS was nearing the end of its testing phase when it was handed over to Space Command in 1984. While Strategic Air Command gave up its space systems, it tried to keep a say in their management, but failed. Air Force Systems Command also tried to keep much of its space role. It took until 1987 for the Air Force Satellite Control Network to transfer to Air Force Space Command (renamed from Space Command in 1985).

On September 23, 1985, United States Space Command (USSPACECOM) was established as a functional unified combatant command for military space operations. This helped gain Army and Navy support for Air Force Space Command. President Reagan also strongly supported its creation. The commander of U.S. Space Command also commanded Air Force Space Command and NORAD. USSPACECOM took over missile warning and space surveillance from NORAD.

The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster caused major concern. The Space Shuttle was meant to be Air Force Space Command's main launch vehicle. Programs like GPS and DSP improvements faced setbacks. Expendable rockets became the only way to access space. In 1987, General John L. Piotrowski, SPACECOM commander, argued that the space launch mission needed to move to Air Force Space Command. In December 1988, the Air Force announced this consolidation. On October 1, 1990, Air Force Systems Command transferred launch bases and missions to Air Force Space Command.

Space Forces in the Gulf War

The Vietnam War was the first war with space support. But the Gulf War is sometimes called the first space war. This is because space forces played a critical role. Before the Gulf War, most space forces focused on nuclear deterrence. But they had supported tactical forces in other conflicts. The Gulf War used the full range of U.S. space forces. Over sixty satellites provided 90% of communications, weather support, early warning of Iraqi missile launches, and navigation for troops.

At the start of Operation Desert Shield, military communication satellites only supported a small American unit. Iraq had no space forces. It used commercial satellites for communications.

Analysts said satellite communications were crucial. Much of the desert lacked reliable phone networks. Satellites carried over 90% of all military communications. Commercial satellites handled 24% of the traffic. Coalition forces received satellite communication support from the Air Force, Navy, NATO, and the British. There were worries about capacity and jamming.

The Navstar Global Positioning System was the most famous space system used. The first five operational GPS satellites launched in 1989. The Gulf War sped up the program. By August 22, 1990, there were fourteen satellites. Launches of two more satellites increased it to 16 before Operation Desert Storm. The Army quickly realized how important GPS was for ground forces. They requested thousands of GPS receivers.

Commanders also understood the importance of weather and Earth monitoring data. Weather support came from the Air Force's three Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) spacecraft. Coalition forces also got weather data from Japanese and European satellites. DMSP was considered the most useful. Earth imaging data came from U.S. and French satellites. The Air Force used this data for airfield construction and mission planning.

Space-based early warning from the Air Force's Defense Support Program (DSP) was critical. It detected Iraqi Scud missile strikes against coalition forces and Israel.

After Iraq ignored the U.N. ultimatum, Operation Desert Storm began. The Defense Satellite Communications System handled over 700,000 transactions daily. It allowed immediate updates to the Air Tasking Order. Over 1,500 satellite communication terminals were in the region. DSCS provided over 50% of all satellite communications. GPS allowed the Army's "Left Hook" across the Iraqi desert. It provided accuracy for special forces, artillery, and aircraft. GPS enabled Boeing B-52 Stratofortress bombers to perform all-weather raids. It provided precise coordinates for cruise missile strikes. DMSP data gave accurate weather reports. DSP satellites provided early warning for MIM-104 Patriot missiles.

The Space Commission

The lessons from the Gulf War led to a new focus on military space forces. Air Force Space Command began to define its missions: space control, force application, force enhancement, and space support. Space control meant being able to use space while denying an enemy the same. Force application meant fire support from space. Space programs continued to develop. The 24-satellite Navstar Global Positioning System constellation was completed in 1993. The Space-Based Infrared System was developed to replace DSP. The first Milstar satellites launched.

In 1992, Air Force Systems Command merged with Air Force Logistics Command to become Air Force Materiel Command. The Space Systems Division became the Space and Missile Systems Center. With GPS complete, space acquisitions shifted to replacing old spacecraft. In 1994, SMC began developing the Space-Based Infrared System (SIBRS) for missile warning. Contracts for new communication satellites like Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) and Wideband Global SATCOM (WGS) were issued. SMC also developed new launch vehicles like the Atlas III and the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle program, which led to the Delta IV and Atlas V rockets.

Despite the rising importance of space forces, some Air Force generals wanted to merge air and space operations. Congress disagreed, seeing this as an attempt to make space secondary to aviation. They established a commission to investigate. Senator Bob Smith even proposed an independent space force.

The 2001 Space Commission, chaired by Donald Rumsfeld, made strong recommendations. It said the commander of United States Space Command should not always be a pilot. It noted that most space leaders had little space experience. The commission concluded that the Air Force was not developing an independent space culture or spending enough on space. It stated that the Air Force treated space as only a supporting capability for air operations. The commission recommended creating a separate Space Force in the long term. It suggested a Space Corps within the Air Force between 2007 and 2011.

Space Forces in the Global War on Terrorism

The idea of a separate Space Corps or Space Force was put on hold by the September 11 attacks. The U.S. focus shifted to the Global War on Terrorism. Air Force Space Command supported Operation Enduring Freedom with satellite communications and GPS. For Operation Iraqi Freedom, space operators deployed to the Middle East. DSCS III provided 80% of bandwidth for allied forces. Milstar communications also supported tactical forces.

The 2001 Space Commission report was largely forgotten. United States Space Command was merged into United States Strategic Command, further reducing military space leadership.

Some recommendations were implemented. The Air Force moved the Space and Missile Systems Center from Air Force Materiel Command to Air Force Space Command on October 1, 2001. Air Force Space Command was organized into the Fourteenth Air Force for space control, operations, and launch support. The Space and Missile Systems Center was its acquisitions arm.

After U.S. Space Command was inactivated in 2002, Russia and China developed advanced space weapons. China's 2007 Chinese anti-satellite missile test destroyed its Fengyun spacecraft. This created 2,841 high-velocity debris items, more dangerous space junk than any other event. On August 29, 2019, United States Space Command was reestablished.

Independent Space Force (2019–Present)

Proposals for Independence

The first attempt to centralize military space was in 1958 with ARPA. Some feared it would become a fourth military service. The 1981 proposal to rename the Air Force to the "Aerospace Force" showed Congress's desire to raise space's profile. The possibility of President Reagan creating an independent space force in 1982 pushed the Air Force to establish Air Force Space Command. The 1990s saw more proposals for an independent space force. The most notable was the 2001 Space Commission's call for a Space Corps and later an independent Space Force. But the September 11 attacks stopped these plans. U.S. national security space organization actually went backward, with United States Space Command being inactivated in 2002.

Growing impatient with the Air Force, Representatives Jim Cooper and Mike Rogers proposed creating the United States Space Corps in 2017. This was meant to separate space professionals from the Air Force and give space more focus. They noted that space officers were not being promoted fairly. The proposal passed in the House but failed in the Senate. Cooper and Rogers criticized Air Force leadership for not taking space threats seriously. The Space Corps proposal was largely driven by the development of Chinese and Russian space forces.

The Space Corps idea gained new life when President Donald Trump directed the Department of Defense to establish the U.S. Space Force in June 2018. Space Policy Directive 4 was signed in February 2019.

NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine and Secretary of the Air Force Barbara Barrett supported a space force. Other supporters included military generals, astronauts like Buzz Aldrin, and SpaceX CEO Elon Musk.

In May 2019, many former military, space, and intelligence leaders released an open letter supporting a space force.

Laws for the Space Force were included in the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020. It was signed into law on December 20, 2019. The Space Force became the sixth armed service branch. Air Force General John W. Raymond, who commanded Air Force Space Command and U.S. Space Command, became the first Chief of Space Operations. He was sworn in on January 14, 2020.

Raymond Era

On December 20, 2019, Air Force Space Command was renamed the United States Space Force. Its commander, General John W. Raymond, became its first Chief of Space Operations. On the same day, Air Force Space Command's Fourteenth Air Force was renamed Space Operations Command. All 16,000 active duty and civilian personnel from Air Force Space Command were assigned to the new service.

Major organizational changes in the first year included replacing space wings and operations groups with "deltas" and "garrisons" on July 24, 2020. The Space Force announced its field command structure: Space Operations Command, Space Systems Command, and Space Training and Readiness Command (STARCOM). On October 21, 2020, Space Operations Command was established as its first field command.

On April 3, 2020, Chief Master Sergeant Roger A. Towberman became the Senior Enlisted Advisor of the Space Force. He was the second member and first enlisted member. On April 18, 2020, 86 graduates of the United States Air Force Academy became the first Space Force second lieutenants. On July 16, 2020, the Space Force selected 2,410 space operations officers and enlisted space systems operators to transfer. The Space Force swore in its first 7 enlisted recruits on October 20, 2020. The Space Force also commissioned its first astronaut, Colonel Michael S. Hopkins, from the International Space Station on December 18, 2020.

During the first year, major symbols were also revealed. The Seal of the United States Space Force was approved on January 15, 2020. The flag of the United States Space Force debuted on May 15, 2020. The Space Force Delta symbol and motto Semper Supra were released on July 22, 2020. The official service title of "Guardian" was announced on December 18, 2020. The first Air Force installations were renamed Space Force installations on December 9, 2020. Patrick Air Force Base became Patrick Space Force Base, and Cape Canaveral Air Force Station became Cape Canaveral Space Force Station.

In September 2020, the Space Force and NASA signed an agreement. This formally recognized their joint roles. On October 20, 2020, the first seven Guardians enlisted directly into the Space Force.

The Space Force's first combat operations as a new service included providing early warning of Iranian missile strikes against U.S. troops on January 7, 2020. The Space Force also monitored Russian spacecraft that had been following U.S. government satellites. On October 1, 2021, the first six U.S. Army soldiers transferred into the Space Force.