English overseas possessions in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms facts for kids

Between 1639 and 1651, English colonies around the world were caught up in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. These were a series of civil wars fought within and between England, Scotland, and Ireland.

English Colonies in the Americas

At the start of these wars, about 50,000 English settlers lived in around twenty colonies in the Americas. Most of these colonies were quite new, founded just before the English Civil War began in 1642. The oldest ones were the Colony of Virginia (started in 1607) and Bermuda (started in 1609). Many adult settlers were the first in their families to live there. Thousands even went back to the British Isles to fight or get involved in the politics of the new government, the Commonwealth of England (1649–1660).

While newer, Puritan settlements in North America (like Massachusetts) supported Parliament, older colonies often sided with the King. After King Charles I was executed in 1649, six colonies recognized his son, Charles II, as their new king. These included Bermuda, Antigua, Barbados, Virginia, Maryland, and Newfoundland. At first, the Parliamentarians (also called Roundheads) were busy fighting Royalists in Scotland, Ireland, and other islands, so they couldn't immediately force the colonies to obey them.

The colonies of Bermuda, Virginia, Antigua, and Barbados were especially loyal to the King. Because of this, the Rump Parliament in England passed a law on October 3, 1650. This law, called "An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego," said that anyone in these colonies who helped the "horrid Rebellions" was a "notorious Robber and Traitor." It also stopped all trade and communication with these rebellious colonies.

The Act also allowed Parliament's privateers (private ships allowed to attack enemy ships) to seize any English ships trading with these colonies. A fleet was also sent to take control of these colonies. By 1652, all the colonies had submitted to the Commonwealth government.

The new government in England also introduced a new economic system called mercantilism. This meant the colonies had to trade mostly with England. The first of these rules were the Navigation Acts in 1651. Soon, the colonies were involved in bigger wars, like the First Anglo-Dutch War (1652–1654) and the Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660).

By the time the King was restored to power in 1660, the colonial population had grown a lot. It quadrupled to over 200,000 people. This growth was due to exiles, refugees, prisoners, and the Atlantic slave trade. In the colonies that later became the United States, the population grew from about 25,000 in 1640 to 75,000 in 1660. The colonies also became more diverse in terms of different ethnic and religious groups. Another important change was the creation of local assemblies in most colonies, giving settlers more say in their own government.

The Caribbean Colonies

Barbados, which was the second most populated English colony, saw a split between Royalists and Parliamentarians during the civil war. To keep the peace, words like "Roundhead" and "Cavalier" were even banned. After King Charles I was executed, Royalists took control of the island's assembly. Lord Willoughby was appointed Governor of Barbados by Charles II in May 1650. He then banished the Parliament supporters. During this time, he also sent a small group of settlers to Suriname, where they built Fort Willoughby (now Paramaribo) in his honor. Since Barbados was cut off from England, it started trading with the Dutch Republic. This trade with the Dutch was a big reason why England passed the Navigation Acts in 1651.

On October 25, 1651, a fleet of seven ships led by Commodore George Ayscue arrived off Barbados. They demanded that the island surrender to the Parliament of England. Governor Willoughby refused, saying he knew "no supreme authority over Englishmen but the King." With about 400 horsemen and 6,000 militia (citizen soldiers), he was ready to fight.

For the next month, Barbados was blockaded. Dutch ships were seized, which helped cause the First Anglo-Dutch War. In early December, with the Royalist cause defeated in England, Ayscue began attacking forts on the island. He was joined by thirteen more ships heading to Virginia. On December 17, over 1,000 Barbadian militia were defeated by Ayscue's forces. Governor Willoughby tried to stop people from supporting Parliament by hanging two returning militia soldiers and banning the reading of documents from Ayscue's fleet.

The Royalists held out for several more weeks. But then, one of Willoughby's own commanders, Sir Thomas Modyford, who was the assembly speaker, declared his support for Parliament. A battle was avoided because of a week of rain. After this, Willoughby, seeing his cause was hopeless, decided to negotiate. He was replaced as governor, but Barbados and its Royalists were not punished harshly.

News of Barbados's surrender shocked the other Royalist colonies. The other five colonies soon gave up without a fight when Ayscue's fleet arrived to change their governments. After the Commonwealth conquered Scotland and Ireland, many Irish prisoners, along with some Scottish and English Royalists, were sent to the Caribbean islands as indentured servants. They became known as Redlegs.

In 1655, Oliver Cromwell (who was now in charge of England) made an alliance with France against Spain. He sent a fleet to the West Indies led by Admiral William Penn, with about 3,000 soldiers under General Robert Venables. This force was strengthened in Barbados, Montserrat, and St. Kitts. Penn and Venables decided to attack Santo Domingo but failed because the Spanish had made their defenses much stronger.

Weakened by fever, the English force then sailed west to Jamaica. This was the only place where the Spanish didn't have new defenses. In May 1655, they invaded at a place called Santiago de la Vega (now Spanish Town). They stayed and fought against local resistance, even with help from troops sent from New Spain. Jamaica became very important for England, acting as a base for buccaneers (pirates). Cromwell was determined to keep Jamaica, sending more soldiers and supplies. Jamaica remained an English colony, even though the exiled King Charles II had promised to return it to Spain if he became king again.

The Chesapeake Colonies and Bermuda

The colonies of Virginia, Bermuda, and Maryland had strong Royalist sympathies. This was partly because of how they were founded and who lived there. Virginia, the oldest and third most populated colony, became a crown colony in 1624, meaning it was directly controlled by the King. Most people there were High Church Anglican. Bermuda, which was originally connected to Virginia, had many Puritans, but its government and society were controlled by Royalists. Maryland, a smaller colony, was founded by Roman Catholic nobles but had many Protestant settlers.

Captain John Smith's 1624 map of Bermuda, showing its forts.

Bermuda, also known as the Somers Isles, is about 640 miles from North Carolina. It was settled in 1609 after a shipwreck and officially became an extension of Virginia in 1612. Its management was later given to the Somers Isles Company in 1615, but it kept close ties to Virginia. Bermuda's own Parliament was created in 1620. Most of the land in Bermuda was owned by people in England, so many islanders were tenants or servants. This meant the local assembly strongly represented the interests of Bermudians, which often clashed with the company owners in England.

Bermuda first grew tobacco, but by the 1620s, Virginia was producing much more, and other colonies also started growing it. This lowered the profits for the company from Bermudian tobacco. Many company owners in England sold their land to the settlers living on it. This created a class of landowners in Bermuda who were technically company owners but couldn't vote on company policies without traveling to England. As Bermudians tried to focus on raising animals and growing food for themselves, they also started building their own ships to trade with other colonies. The company owners in England, many of whom supported Parliament, tried to stop Bermuda's growing shipping industry. This made Bermudians even more against the company owners and pushed them to support the King.

Even though the Somers Isles Company leaned Royalist in 1647, it was on Parliament's side by 1649. One of its main shareholders, Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick, was even the Lord High Admiral of Parliament's navy. Despite this, Bermudians generally supported the Royalists, though Bermuda largely avoided the worst of the conflict.

In a letter from May 9, 1646, William Renner wrote that the government in Bermuda had changed. The Governor called an assembly, and the members were chosen from those who were against the Independents (Puritans). He said they didn't allow a "Roundhead" (Parliament supporter) to be chosen.

News of King Charles I's execution reached Bermuda by July 1649. On July 5, a group called "the Country" (the Royalist party) proposed that Bermuda recognize Charles II as King. They also wanted everyone to take an oath of loyalty to the King and follow the laws of the Church of England.

The Governor and Council agreed, making Bermuda the first colony to recognize Charles II as King. They said they were loyal to the King and Crown of England and detested the "horrid Act of Slaying his Majesty."

On August 20, 1649, Governor Turner ordered a public statement. It said that anyone who had taken an oath of loyalty to the King but then refused to follow the laws of the government would be punished. Two men were imprisoned that day for refusing to take the oath. Another man was punished for speaking against the King and Governor.

Turner's time as Governor ended when the Royalist party accused a Puritan minister of being an enemy of the King. The Royalist "Army" arrested the minister and most of the Independents. The Royalists then accused Governor Turner, who resigned. The Council then elected John Trimingham as the new Governor.

Under William Sayle, a Puritan loyal to Cromwell, many defeated Puritans from Bermuda were forced to leave. They settled in the Bahamas and became known as the Eleutheran Adventurers.

The Royalists in Bermuda, who controlled the army and coastal forts, felt safe because of the island's natural defenses and strong forts. However, the Parliamentary government in England thought Bermuda's defenses were weak and planned to capture the colony.

On December 18, 1649, a committee was formed in England to look into Bermuda's affairs. On January 1, 1650, they decided that Captain Forster should govern Bermuda with his Council. They also said that all fort commanders should be chosen by the Governor and Council. All officers had to take an oath of loyalty to Parliament. They also ordered that the former Governor, Captain Turner, and a minister named Mr. Viner, be arrested and sent to England for questioning.

These instructions arrived in Bermuda on May 29, 1650. Even though the Royalists in Bermuda complained, Forster was eventually accepted as Governor. However, the government of Bermuda remained Royalist in its sympathies.

A minister informed the Council that a ship with commissioners and soldiers was preparing to seize Bermuda. The Act prohibiting trade with rebellious colonies was passed on October 3, 1650.

In Bermuda, two tailors were tried in November 1650 for being traitors against "our Soveraigne Lord the Kinge."

Admiral Sir George Ayscue, who led the fleet sent to capture the Royalist colonies, received more orders on February 13, 1651. He was told to also take care of Bermuda, Virginia, and Antigua, if possible, after dealing with Barbados. The orders said that the officer who captured a colony should become its Governor. If that wasn't possible, he could appoint someone else, like William Wilkinson of Bermuda, to be Governor.

Barbados surrendered on January 13, 1652. But no attempt was made to attack Bermuda. On February 25, 1652, the Governor and Council of Bermuda received a letter from the Company. It told them to pledge loyalty to the Commonwealth of England, "as it is now established without a kinge or House of Lordes." They agreed, and a public announcement was made, ordering all Bermudians to take the same pledge.

Before the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, most people in Bermuda were of English descent. However, conflicts in the 17th century quickly changed the population. New groups arrived as immigrants, slaves, and indentured servants. The first new group was Irish and Scottish indentured servants, many of whom were prisoners of war captured during the conflicts.

The English conquest of Ireland led to Irish captives being sent as indentured servants to the colonies. This helped clear Irish land for English soldiers. The Puritan government also believed that sending Catholics from Ireland to Protestant colonies would help conquer Ireland and convert the Irish to Protestantism. Many Scottish soldiers captured during the conquest of Scotland (1650–1652) were also sent as indentured servants to the English colonies.

The second new group was Native Americans from North America. They were brought to Bermuda as slaves after being sold into slavery following conflicts like the Pequot War. Small numbers of enslaved black Africans and Latin Americans of African descent had also arrived in Bermuda earlier, often from shipwrecks or captured Spanish ships. The first large group of people of African descent came as indentured free people of color from former Spanish colonies taken by England.

These rapid changes in population worried the main Anglo-Bermudian population, especially the arrival of Irish indentured servants. Most Irish were thought to be secretly practicing Catholicism, which was illegal in Bermuda. To respond to the large number of black people (many of whom spoke Spanish and were also thought to be Catholic), the terms of their indenture were raised from seven to ninety-nine years to discourage more immigration. Free black people were also pressured to leave, and slave owners were encouraged to export slaves.

Relationships between the Anglo-Bermudian community and Irish indentured servants were often difficult. The Irish eventually mixed with the Scottish, African, Native American, and some white communities in Bermuda. They formed a new group called "coloureds," which in Bermuda meant anyone not entirely of European descent. By 1699, Bermuda's population of 5,862 included 3,615 white and 2,247 coloured islanders.

The Irish quickly found their new conditions in Bermuda difficult. Colonial laws were passed stating that masters should make sure their Irish servants did not "straggle not night nor daie." It also became illegal for anyone in Bermuda to buy any more Irish servants.

In September 1658, three Irish servants in Bermuda were whipped for breaking curfew and suspected boat theft. Other servants, including a Scottish man and several black men, were also punished. In September 1660, a constable complained about being abused by three Irishmen. They were sentenced to stand in church with signs explaining their crimes and then held in the stocks.

In 1661, the colonial government claimed there was a plot by an alliance of Black and Irish people to kill all Bermudians of English descent. The governor of Bermuda, William Sayle, responded with three orders: a nightly watch, disarming slaves and Irish people of militia weapons, and whipping any gathering of two or more Irish or slaves. No arrests or executions happened, but an Irish woman and a Native American man involved in a romantic relationship were punished.

The restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 eventually helped Bermudians win against the Somers Isles Company. The islanders took their case to the King, who listened. This led to the Company's Royal Charter being taken away in 1684, and the King took over running the colony directly.

In April 1643, Governor Leonard Calvert of Maryland went to consult with his brother, Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, who was the colony's owner. While he was away, Captain Richard Ingle, a Parliament supporter, visited St. Mary's City and led a rebellion when Calvert returned. In September 1644, Ingle captured St. Mary's City, and another man captured Kent Island, forcing Calvert to flee to Virginia. This period, known as the Plundering Time, lasted almost two years. Ingle and his friends robbed the colony and took Jesuits (Catholic priests) back to England as prisoners.

Meanwhile, Virginia was fighting for its survival in a war against the Powhatan Native Americans (1644–1646). A tenth of the colonial population was killed in the first attack. Royalist supporters claimed that Parliament supporters were stirring up the natives. Governor William Berkeley expelled all Puritans from Virginia in 1647. After Virginia won the war, Calvert returned to Maryland in 1646 and recaptured St. Mary's City.

After Leonard Calvert died in 1647, Cecil Calvert named William Stone, a Protestant, as governor in 1649. By choosing Stone, Calvert hoped to avoid criticism that Maryland was a place where Protestants were treated unfairly. Stone and his council had to promise not to interfere with freedom of worship. In 1649, the colonial assembly passed the Maryland Toleration Act, which protected religious freedom in Maryland.

After the King's execution, Virginia remained loyal to the King, even though Parliament said supporting Charles II was treason. Governor Berkeley even invited the King to Virginia. The question of Maryland's loyalty was settled, at least for a while, when Thomas Greene, Stone's deputy and a Roman Catholic, declared on November 15, 1649, that Charles II was the "undoubted rightfull heire" to his father's lands. All future acts by the Maryland Assembly would also require an oath of loyalty to Baltimore as the "Lord Proprietor" (owner).

In March 1652, the Rump Parliament removed Stone and Berkeley as governors of Maryland and Virginia. Richard Bennett replaced Berkeley, but Stone was put back in charge in June. On March 2, 1654, Stone said that even though he was loyal to the Commonwealth, all official documents should still use the Proprietor's name.

On January 3, 1654, the exiled Virginian Puritans, who had settled in Providence at Stone's invitation, objected to the oath because Baltimore was Catholic. On July 20, 1654, Stone resigned as governor under pressure and fled to Virginia.

Parliamentary commissioners then became the actual governors of the colony. Their first assembly was held on October 20, 1654. Roman Catholics and anyone who had fought against Parliament could not be members, which meant mostly Puritans were in charge. Among the 44 laws passed, they repealed the Toleration Act and forbade Roman Catholics from practicing their faith.

On January 31, 1655, a merchant ship arrived in Maryland. Stone told the captain that he was no longer Governor. Around the same time, another ship arrived with a letter from Oliver Cromwell, who was now the Lord Protector of England. The letter was addressed to Captain Stone, Governor of Maryland.

Seeing this as a sign of recognition, Stone challenged the commissioners' authority. He took back the colony's records and gathered his troops to deal with the Puritan settlers. Stone recaptured the Assembly records and sailed with a small fleet towards Providence.

The ship's captain was told of a plot to kill the people of Providence and burn his ship. After moving the women and children to his ship, a war council was held. They appointed William Fuller, a Puritan settler, as their leader. On March 23, 1655, the council ordered the captain to help them. Virginia's Richard Bennett also supported the Puritans.

On March 24, 1655, the captain fired on boats heading towards his ship, forcing them to retreat. He then blocked their escape route. On March 25, after Fuller got the only Commonwealth flag for his forces, the two sides met. Fuller's forces pushed Stone's small group to the end of the peninsula. In less than half an hour, the battle was over. 17 of Stone's men were killed and 32 wounded, including Stone. Only two of Fuller's men were killed. This event is known as the Battle of the Severn.

Stone surrendered after being promised mercy. However, the war council sentenced Stone and nine others to death. Four prisoners were executed, but the rest were saved when the women of Providence begged for their lives.

The Puritan assembly kept power until April 27, 1658. At that time, ownership of the colony was returned to Lord Baltimore. Religious freedom was restored, and a general amnesty (forgiveness) was given. So, Lord Baltimore kept his lands and powers, avoiding the harsh fate of many others in England during this time. The Proprietor appointed Josias Fendall to be the new governor for his loyalty during the battle.

Governor Fendall soon had a disagreement with Lord Baltimore. In 1659, he led a peaceful revolution known as Fendall's Rebellion. He and Fuller changed Maryland's government to be more like England's Commonwealth. The Proprietor's power and the assembly's upper house were removed. However, the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 forced Fendall into exile and brought back the Proprietor's rule.

After Governor Samuel Matthews died, Virginia's House of Burgesses reelected the Royalist William Berkeley in 1659. Because of this, historian Robert Beverley, Jr. wrote in 1705 that Virginia was "the last of all the King's Dominions that submitted to the Usurpation, and afterwards the first that cast it off." Many of the important families in Virginia today trace their origins to this time. As a reward for its loyalty, Charles II gave Virginia the nickname "Old Dominion." He also gave a group of his loyal supporters the right to start a new colony just south of Virginia, called Carolina after his father. Its capital would be called Charleston. This colony was started by families from Bermuda and new settlers from England. They sailed from Bermuda under the same William Sayle who had led the Puritan exiles from Bermuda to the Bahamas during the war.

Northern Colonies

From 1630 to 1640, about 20,000 Puritans moved to New England in what was called the Great Migration. In 1642, after the English Civil War began, one-sixth of the male colonists returned to England to fight for Parliament. Many stayed because Oliver Cromwell himself was a Puritan. In 1643, most of the colonies formed the New England Confederation, which was a defensive alliance. In the early years of the Commonwealth, there was a debate about whether England should be like its Puritan colonies. Non-Puritan groups successfully convinced Cromwell to allow religious tolerance to avoid problems in the army.

In 1637, Baptist leader Anne Hutchinson bought land from Native Americans on Aquidneck Island, settling in Pocasset (now Portsmouth, Rhode Island). Other settlements of refugees followed, forming a loose alliance. They sought recognition as an English colony in 1643 because their independence was threatened. The revolutionary Long Parliament in London granted them a charter in March 1644. The colonists chose not to have a governor but set up an elected "president" and council.

Royalist Newfoundland fishermen, supported by Prince Rupert, fought sea battles with New Englanders until Governor David Kirke was arrested by his replacement in 1651. The sparsely populated Anglican Province of Maine was taken over by the more populated Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1652 and became the County of Yorkshire.

In 1654, the New England Confederation voted to invade New Netherland to support the Commonwealth during the First Anglo-Dutch War. Massachusetts refused to join, which weakened the Confederation. Cromwell sent naval reinforcements, but the war ended before they could organize their forces. This expedition was then redirected to Nova Scotia, a former Scottish colony that Charles I had given to French Acadia years earlier. Cromwell claimed that earlier treaties were invalid and that the French had not paid for the land. Nova Scotia was taken without much resistance by Robert Sedgwick. This became an international issue because England and France were at peace. However, France was busy fighting Spain and gave the territory to England to secure the Commonwealth as an ally. England returned it to France in 1670 as part of the 1667 Treaty of Breda.

After the King was restored, there was an uprising in London led by a New Englander. This was used by Royalist supporters to unfairly blame New England for the problems of the past two decades. It didn't help that the New Haven colony protected several people who had signed the death warrant for King Charles I. As punishment, New Haven was merged with the Connecticut Colony. New England as a whole remained a strong center of Puritanism, where feelings against the King's rule continued until the Glorious Revolution.

English Colonies in India

During this time, the East India Company had trading posts (called factories) in places like Bantam, Surat, and Fort St George (now Chennai). The Commonwealth government in England was not very supportive of the Company, seeing it as something from the old King's time. The First Anglo-Dutch War greatly hurt the Company's business because it had a weaker military presence in the Indian Ocean compared to its rival, the Dutch East India Company. In 1654, the East India Company lost its special trading rights. However, Cromwell renewed these rights in 1657 and gave the Company the right to govern the island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic.

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