Wars of the Three Kingdoms facts for kids
Quick facts for kids Wars of the Three Kingdoms |
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| Part of the European wars of religion | |||||||||
_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg) Monarch of the Three Kingdoms: Charles I in Three Positions by Anthony van Dyck, painted 1635–1636 |
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| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Royalists |
 Covenanters |
 Confederates |
 Parliamentarians |
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| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| 50,000 English & Welsh | unknown | unknown | 34,000 | ||||||
| 127,000 non-combat English and Welsh deaths (including some 40,000 civilians) Total: 500,000+ dead |
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The Wars of the Three Kingdoms, also called the British Civil Wars, were a series of connected conflicts. They took place between 1639 and 1653 in the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. These three kingdoms were separate but shared the same king, Charles I.
These wars included the Bishops' Wars (1639–1640), the First and Second English Civil Wars, the Irish Confederate Wars, and the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland. The wars ended with the Parliamentarian army winning. King Charles I was executed, the idea of having a king was abolished, and the Commonwealth of England was created. This new government controlled the British Isles until the monarchy was brought back in 1660.
The main reasons for these wars were political and religious disagreements between King Charles I and his opponents. Most people supported having a king, but they argued about who had the most power. Royalists (also called 'Cavaliers') believed the king should have the most authority. Their opponents, the Parliamentarians (or 'Roundheads'), wanted a king whose power was limited by laws and Parliament.
Religion also played a big part. Reformed Protestants, like the English Puritans and Scottish Covenanters, did not like the changes King Charles tried to make to the state churches in England and Scotland. In Ireland, where most people were Catholic, the Irish Confederates wanted an end to unfair treatment against Catholics. They also wanted more self-governance and to get back lands that had been given to Protestant settlers.
The fighting started with the Bishops' Wars in 1639–1640. Scottish Covenanters, who were against Charles' religious changes, took control of Scotland. They even briefly occupied northern England. In 1641, Irish Catholics started a rebellion, which turned into fighting between different groups. The Irish Catholic Confederation was formed to manage this rebellion. They controlled most of Ireland in the war against the Royalists, Parliamentarians, and Covenanters.
Even though all three groups wanted to stop the Irish rebellion, they did not trust each other to lead an army. This led to a political deadlock. In August 1642, this deadlock caused the First English Civil War to begin. In this war, Royalists fought against both the Parliamentarians and their Scottish Covenanter allies in England and Wales.
Contents
What the Wars Were Called
The name Wars of the Three Kingdoms was first used in a book published in 1662. However, historians today use different names for these events. Some call them the Great Rebellion or the English Civil War.
Modern historians often use Wars of the Three Kingdoms because they see the conflicts in each country as having their own reasons. These reasons were connected but often different. Other historians simply call them the British Civil Wars.
Why the Wars Happened
General Background
After 1541, the kings of England called their land in Ireland a Kingdom. Before that, it was called the Lordship of Ireland. The king ruled Ireland with the help of a separate Irish Parliament. Also, in 1535 and 1542, Henry VIII made Wales a closer part of the Kingdom of England. Scotland was the third separate kingdom, ruled by the House of Stuart.
During the English Reformation, King Henry VIII made himself the head of the Protestant Church of England. He made Catholicism illegal in England and Wales. Over time, being Protestant became a big part of English identity. Catholicism was seen as an enemy, especially because France and Spain were Catholic rivals. However, in Ireland, most people remained Catholic. For many Irish, their religion was a way to resist the English rule.
In Scotland, the Protestant Reformation was a popular movement led by John Knox. The Scottish Parliament created a national Presbyterian church, called the Church of Scotland or the "Kirk". Mary, Queen of Scots, who was Catholic, had to give up her throne to her son James VI of Scotland. James grew up with different groups fighting for control. When he became king, he wanted to be a "universal King." He liked the English system where bishops were appointed by the king. In 1584, he brought bishops into the Church of Scotland. But he faced strong opposition and had to agree that the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland would still run the church.
The three kingdoms came under one king when King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England and Ireland in 1603. In 1625, Charles I became king after his father. Charles had three main concerns for England and Wales: how to pay for his government, how to change the church, and how to limit the English Parliament's power. At first, he did not pay much attention to Scotland and Ireland.
Scotland's Role
James VI remained Protestant to help him become king of England. He became James I of England in 1603 and moved to London. James focused on England, ruling Scotland through written orders to the Privy Council and controlling the Parliament of Scotland. He limited the power of the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and stopped it from meeting. He also increased the number of bishops in the Church of Scotland. In 1618, he made the church adopt five Episcopalian practices, but many people ignored them.
After James died in 1625, his son Charles I became king. Charles was crowned in St Giles' Cathedral, Edinburgh, in 1633, using full Anglican ceremonies. Charles was not as skilled as his father. His attempts to make the Church of Scotland use Anglican practices caused a lot of anger. This anger exploded when he introduced the Anglican Book of Common Prayer. His conflict with the Scots became a full war in 1639. He tried to force Scotland to obey him with his army during the Bishops' Wars, but he failed.
England's Role
Charles believed in the Divine Right of Kings. This meant he thought God had chosen him to rule. His strong belief in this idea caused many problems between him and the English Parliament. The Church of England was the main church, but a strong group of Puritans, who made up about a third of Parliament, started to speak up. Their religious ideas were very similar to the Presbyterian Scots.
The English Parliament and the king often argued about taxes, money for the army, and Parliament's role in government. James I, Charles' father, had similar ideas about royal power. But he was usually good at convincing Parliament to agree with him. Charles did not have this skill. When many problems arose between 1639 and 1642, he could not stop his kingdoms from falling into civil war. When Charles asked Parliament for money to fight the Scots, they refused. Parliament then declared they would stay in session permanently. This was called the Long Parliament. They soon gave Charles a long list of problems they wanted him to fix before they would approve any new laws.
English Overseas Possessions
During the English Civil War, English lands overseas also got involved. In the Channel Islands, Jersey and Castle Cornet in Guernsey supported the King. They surrendered honorably in December 1651.
Newer Puritan settlements in North America, like Massachusetts, supported Parliament. But older colonies in the south sided with the King. In Maryland, fighting broke out between Royalists and Puritans in the Battle of the Severn. The settlements of Virginia, Bermuda, Antigua, and Barbados were very loyal to the King. Parliament passed a law in October 1650 to stop trade with these "rebellious" colonies.
This law said that anyone who helped the rebellions in Barbados, Antigua, Bermuda, and Virginia were "notorious Robbers and Traitors." It also said that no one should trade with them. The law also allowed Parliament's private ships to attack English ships trading with these colonies.
Bermuda's defenses were ready for an invasion that never came. These defenses, built to fight Spain, would have been hard for the Parliamentary fleet to overcome. But after Barbados fell, Bermuda made a separate peace. The Parliament of Bermuda avoided the fate of the English Parliament during The Protectorate. It became one of the oldest continuous legislatures in the world.
Virginia's population grew with Royalists during and after the English Civil War. Even so, a Puritan named Richard Bennett became Governor, answering to Cromwell in 1652. Virginia's loyalty to the King was rewarded after the monarchy was restored in 1660. Charles II called it the Old Dominion.
Ireland's Role
Meanwhile, in the Kingdom of Ireland, problems were also growing. Thomas Wentworth, King Charles I's chief governor in Ireland, angered Catholics. He made them pay new taxes but did not give them full rights. He also upset wealthy Irish Catholics by trying to take their lands and give them to English settlers.
Things became very tense in 1639. Wentworth offered Irish Catholics some changes if they would raise and pay for an Irish army. This army would be led by Protestant officers and would help put down the Scottish rebellion. The idea of an Irish Catholic army enforcing a government that many saw as unfair scared both the Scottish and English Parliaments. In response, they threatened to invade Ireland.
The Wars Begin
Historians now say that these civil wars were not bound to happen. They note that the different sides started fighting because of deep distrust and fear. Charles' first failure to end the Bishops' Wars in 1639 and 1640 quickly made people believe that force was better than talking. Most Scots opposed the King's efforts to impose bishops and Anglican practices on the Scottish Kirk. They supported a Presbyterian system led by a General Assembly and local ministers. The 1638 National Covenant promised to fight against such "innovations." Those who signed it were called Covenanters.
In Ireland, Irish Catholics felt left out by the Church of England. They were also scared by what the English and Scottish Parliaments were saying. A small group of Irish plotters started the Irish Rebellion of 1641. They claimed to be supporting the "King's Rights." This uprising involved widespread violent attacks on Protestant communities in Ireland.
In England and Scotland, rumors spread that the King had approved these killings. Many people feared this meant the same would happen to them if the King's Irish troops came to Britain. So, the English Parliament refused to pay for a royal army to stop the rebellion in Ireland. Instead, Parliament decided to raise its own army. The King did the same, gathering Royalists who believed their best chance was to stay loyal to him.
The English Civil War started in 1642. Scottish Covenanters joined the English Parliament in late 1643. They played a big part in Parliament's final victory. Over more than two years, the King's forces were worn down by Parliament's army, including the New Model Army. Parliament's army was also supported by the money from the City of London. On May 5, 1646, Charles I surrendered to the Scottish army. What was left of the English and Welsh Royalist armies surrendered over the next few months.
Meanwhile, the rebellious Irish Catholics formed their own government, Confederate Ireland. They planned to help the Royalists in exchange for religious freedom and self-rule. Troops from England and Scotland fought in Ireland. Irish Confederate troops also went to Scotland in 1644, starting the Scottish Civil War. There, the Royalists won several battles in 1644–1645. But they were defeated after the main Covenanter armies returned to Scotland when the first English Civil War ended.
The Scots handed Charles over to the English after being paid a large sum for their help. After his surrender, Charles was approached by the Scots, the Presbyterians in the English Parliament, and the leaders of the New Model Army. All of them tried to make a deal with him and among themselves to achieve peace and keep the crown. But a split grew between the New Model Army and Parliament. The Puritans in Parliament, with allies among the Scots and remaining Royalists, felt strong enough to challenge the Army. This started the Second English Civil War.
The New Model Army defeated the English Royalists and Parliamentarians, as well as their Scottish allies. Because of his secret dealings with the Scottish, Charles was accused of treason against England. The Army leaders then removed members from the English Parliament who opposed them. The remaining Parliament, called the Rump Parliament, approved the trial of Charles I for treason. He was found guilty and executed on January 30, 1649.
After King Charles I was executed, the Rump Parliament passed laws saying that England was a republic, called a Commonwealth. The House of Commons would be the law-making body, without the House of Lords. A Council of State would act as the government's executive power. In Ireland and Scotland, the King's execution caused the fighting groups to unite. They recognized Charles II as king. This led to a Third English Civil War.
To deal with the threat from Ireland and Scotland, the Rump Parliament sent Oliver Cromwell to invade Ireland. In August 1649, he landed an English army in Ireland. In May 1650, Cromwell left part of his army to continue the conquest of Ireland. He returned to England to lead another English army into Scotland. On September 3, 1650, he defeated the Scottish Covenanters at the Battle of Dunbar. His forces then took Edinburgh and southern Scotland.
Cromwell was moving his main army towards Stirling. But Charles II, leading a Scottish Royalist army, surprised the English commander and invaded England from Scotland. Cromwell split his forces. He left some in Scotland to finish the conquest there, and led the rest south to chase Charles II.
The Royalist army did not get much support from English Royalists as it moved south. So, instead of going straight to London, Charles aimed for Worcester. He hoped Wales and western England would rise against the Commonwealth. This did not happen. One year after the Battle of Dunbar, the New Model Army defeated the last Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester on September 3, 1651. This was the last and most important battle in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms.
What Happened After the Wars
After defeating all organized opposition, the leaders of Parliament's New Model Army controlled the politics of all three nations for the next nine years. This time was called the Interregnum (1649–1660). England was already a republic, a Commonwealth. Ireland and Scotland were now under military governors. Representatives from both nations were part of the Parliament, but they were mostly controlled by Oliver Cromwell, who became the Lord Protector.
When Cromwell died in 1658, the Commonwealth became unstable. In early 1660, General George Monck, who commanded English forces in Scotland, marched his troops south into England. He took control of London by February 1660. He gathered allies among the English and London leaders, including the new Convention Parliament. Monck, who had been a Royalist and then a Parliamentary soldier, now helped bring back the monarchy. Monck arranged for the Convention Parliament to invite Charles II to return as king of the three realms. This was done by an act of Parliament on May 1, 1660.
The Wars of the Three Kingdoms led to many changes that would shape modern Britain. But in the short term, these conflicts did not solve much for the kingdoms. The English Commonwealth did create a notable balance between monarchy and republic. This balance lasted for almost 200 years. Oliver Cromwell used his control over the army to hold political power. But his legal position and how his successor would be chosen were unclear, even after he became Lord Protector. None of the new constitutions proposed during this time were fully put into place. So, the Commonwealth and Protectorate, created by the war's winners, did not leave a lasting new form of government.
However, in the long run, two important parts of British democracy were established during this time:
- After King Charles I was executed for treason, no future British king could expect that his people would accept him acting like a dictator. The idea of the "divine right of kings" was gone.
- The actions of the New Model Army, especially during the Rule of the Major-Generals, made people deeply distrust military dictators and military rule. This distrust continues today among people of British descent.
English Protestants had religious freedom during this time, but English Catholics did not. During their control, the Puritans abolished the Church of England and the House of Lords. Cromwell criticized the Rump Parliament and closed it by force. But he failed to create a good alternative. He and his supporters also did not move towards a more popular democracy, which some radical Parliamentarians wanted.
During this time, the New Model Army occupied Ireland and Scotland. In Ireland, the new government took almost all lands belonging to Irish Catholics as punishment for the 1641 rebellion. Harsh laws also limited this community. Thousands of Parliamentarian soldiers settled in Ireland on the taken lands. The Commonwealth abolished the Parliaments of Ireland and Scotland. In theory, these countries had representatives in the English Parliament. But since this Parliament did not have real power, their representation was not effective.
When Cromwell died in 1658, the Commonwealth fell apart without major violence. Historians say that clever politicians, especially George Monck, managed the crisis. Monck was seen as the victor "without blood" of the Restoration crisis. In 1660, Charles II was brought back as king of England, Scotland, and Ireland.
Under the English Restoration, the political system returned to how it was before the war. Charles II offered forgiveness and a general pardon for crimes committed during the war. However, the new government executed or imprisoned for life those directly involved in the execution of Charles I. Royalists even dug up Cromwell's body and performed a posthumous execution. Those who were seen as responsible for the wars because of their religious and political beliefs faced harsh punishment. Scotland and Ireland got their Parliaments back, some Irish people got their confiscated lands back, and the New Model Army was disbanded.
However, the issues that caused the wars—religion, the power of Parliament versus the king, and the relationships between the three kingdoms—were not fully solved. They were just put off. These issues came up again and led to the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Only later did the main features of modern Britain, which were hinted at in the civil wars, become permanent: a Protestant constitutional monarchy and a strong standing army controlled by civilians.
See also
