History of Lebanon facts for kids

The history of Lebanon tells the story of the country we know today as Lebanon. It also covers the older history of the land, including the time when it was called Greater Lebanon under French rule. Lebanon has been within its current borders since 1920. This was when Greater Lebanon was formed after World War I, as the large Ottoman Empire broke apart. Before 1920, "Lebanon" usually meant the Mount Lebanon mountains and nearby areas like the coast and the Beqaa Valley. The idea of an independent Lebanon started with Maronite religious leaders who wanted their own nation.

Early Times: Prehistory in Lebanon

Ksar Akil, about 10 kilometers (6 miles) northeast of Beirut, is a very important ancient site. It's a large rock shelter where scientists have found many layers of old tools and remains. These findings show that people lived there for a very long time.

Scientists found tools from the Paleolithic period, which was the Old Stone Age. They also found a complete skeleton of an eight-year-old early human, named Egbert. A piece of a Neanderthal jaw was also found.

Ksar Akil is thought to be one of the first places where early humans used advanced tools. They found tools called Ksar Akil flakes. They also found shells with holes, which might have been used as jewelry like pendants or beads. This suggests that the people living there were among the first in Western Eurasia to wear personal ornaments. Scientists believe these early humans lived at Ksar Akil around 45,000 years ago or even earlier. Wearing ornaments shows that they had modern human behavior.

Ancient Civilizations: Phoenicians and More

The earliest cultures in Lebanon led to the civilization of the Canaanite period. During this time, around 2000 BC, ancient people farmed the land and lived in advanced societies. The Canaanites were the first to create a 24-letter alphabet. This alphabet later became the Phoenician alphabet, which influenced writing across the Mediterranean region.

The coastal area of Lebanon was home to a group of trading cities. The Greeks called these people the Phoenicians. Their sea-faring culture thrived for over 1,000 years. Ancient ruins in cities like Byblos, Beirut, Sidon, and Tyre show that they were a civilized nation with busy cities and beautiful art.

Phoenicia was a meeting point for many different nations and cultures. Phoenician art and customs show influences from Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. For example, the coffins of Sidonian kings show that they adopted Egyptian burial traditions.

Phoenician traders sold spices from Arabia, like cinnamon, to the Greeks. This trade likely helped spread the Phoenician alphabet to Greece. The Greek historian Herodotus said that the Phoenicians taught the Greeks how to write. Legend says that Cadmus, a prince from Tyre, brought the alphabet to Greece.

The Phoenicians were also famous for their amazing sailing skills. They were possibly the first to sail all the way around the continent of Africa. Herodotus wrote about how Egyptian Pharaoh Necos sent Phoenician sailors on this journey. They sailed from the Red Sea, around Africa, and back through the Strait of Gibraltar. This journey took three years. Herodotus mentioned that the Phoenicians reported seeing the sun on their right side when sailing south. Modern historians believe this detail makes the story believable, as they wouldn't have known this unless they had actually sailed south of the Equator.

The Phoenicians also founded many colonies around the Mediterranean Sea. The most famous ones were Carthage in modern-day Tunisia and Cadiz in modern-day Spain.

From the 9th to 6th centuries BC, Phoenicia had a difficult relationship with the powerful Assyrian and Babylonian empires, often paying them tribute.

Classical Times: Greeks and Romans

After their power declined, the Phoenician cities on the Lebanese coast were conquered by the Persian Empire in 539 BC. Under Persian rule, the area was part of a larger region that included Palestine, Syria, and Cyprus. Many Phoenician colonies, like Carthage, remained independent.

The Phoenicians provided most of the ships for the Persian fleet during the Greco-Persian Wars. Herodotus called them the "best sailors" in the Persian fleet. However, they were punished by the Persian king after the Battle of Salamis, which was a big defeat for the Persians.

In 332 BC, the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great conquered Lebanon during his war against Persia. He attacked and burned Tyre, the most important Phoenician city. After Alexander's death, the region became part of the Seleucid Empire.

Christianity arrived in Lebanon's coastal areas in the 1st century AD. The region became an important center for Christianity. In the 4th century, it became part of the Christian Byzantine Empire.

In the late 4th and early 5th centuries, a hermit named Maron started a monastic tradition near Mount Lebanon. His followers, known as Maronites, spread his teachings. They moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution. From 619 to 629, the Persians occupied what is now Lebanon.

Middle Ages: Islamic Rule and Crusaders

Islamic Rule in Lebanon

In the 7th century AD, Muslim Arabs conquered Syria, replacing the Roman (Byzantine) rule. Even though Islam and Arabic became dominant, it took time for people to convert from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community kept its Christian faith and managed to stay quite independent despite the new rulers. Muslim influence grew a lot when the Umayyad capital was set up in nearby Damascus.

In the 11th century, the Druze faith started from a branch of Islam. This new faith gained followers in southern Lebanon. The Maronites and Druze shared control of Lebanon until modern times. The major coastal cities like Acre and Beirut were directly ruled by Muslim leaders, and their people became more influenced by Arabic culture.

Crusader Kingdoms in Lebanon

After the Muslim Turks took control of Christian lands in the 11th century, the Byzantine Empire asked the Pope in Rome for help. This led to the Crusades, a series of wars launched by Latin Christians from Western Europe. Their goal was to take back former Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine.

Lebanon was directly in the path of the First Crusade as they marched towards Jerusalem. European nobles took over areas within present-day Lebanon. The southern part of Lebanon became the northern border of the Kingdom of Jerusalem (founded in 1099). The northern part became the center of the County of Tripoli (founded in 1109). Even though Saladin took back control of the Holy Land around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended.

One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades was the connection between the Crusaders (mostly French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian groups in the region, the Maronites were loyal to the Pope in Rome. Because of this, the French saw them as fellow Roman Catholics. These early contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the Crusader states fell.

Mamluk Rule and Ottoman Beginnings

Muslim control of Lebanon was re-established in the late 13th century by the Mamluk sultans of Egypt. Lebanon was then fought over by different Muslim rulers until the Turkish Ottoman Empire took firm control of the eastern Mediterranean.

Ottoman rule was strong in the early modern period. The Lebanese coast became important for trade with Italian city-states like Venice and Genoa.

The mountainous region of Mount Lebanon has always been a safe place for minority groups, including its historic Maronite Christian majority and Druze communities. It was a self-governing area within the Ottoman Empire.

Ottoman Rule: A New Era

Starting in the 13th century, the Ottoman Turks built a large empire that included the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa. In 1516, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluks and conquered Syria.

During the fight between the Mamluks and Ottomans, the leaders of Lebanon sided with the Ottomans. Sultan Selim I decided to give the Lebanese leaders a special, semi-independent status. The Ottomans ruled Lebanon through two main families: the Maans (who were Druze) and the Chehabs (who were Sunni Muslim Arabs who later converted to Maronite Christianity). This lasted until the mid-19th century. During Ottoman rule, the term Syria referred to the area that included present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel/Palestine.

The Maans: Fakhr ad-Din II

The Maans arrived in Lebanon in 1120. They were a Druze family who settled in the mountains. Their power grew with Fakhr ad-Din I and reached its peak with Fakhr ad-Din II (1570–1635).

Fakhr ad-Din II: A Great Leader

Fakhr al-Din II was born into a Druze family. In 1608, he made an alliance with the Italian Grand Duchy of Tuscany. This alliance had both economic and secret military parts.

Fakhr al-Din's growing power and foreign contacts worried the Ottomans. In 1613, they sent an army of 50,000 men to attack Lebanon. Fakhr al-Din chose to go into exile in Tuscany, leaving his brother and son in charge. They managed to keep control of most forts. In Tuscany, he was welcomed by the Medici Family. He hoped to get European help to free his homeland from Ottoman rule, but Europe was more interested in trade. His stay in Europe, however, allowed him to see the cultural changes of the 17th century. He brought back some Renaissance ideas and architectural styles to Lebanon.

By 1618, political changes in the Ottoman Empire allowed Fakhr al-Din to return to Lebanon. He quickly reunited all the lands of Lebanon. He also took revenge on his enemies and regained territories he had lost. Under his rule, printing presses were introduced, and Jesuit priests and Catholic nuns were encouraged to open schools.

In 1623, Fakhr al-Din angered the Ottomans by refusing to let an army stay in the Bekaa Valley. This led to a battle at Majdel Anjar, where Fakhr al-Din's forces, though outnumbered, won a great victory.

However, the Ottomans became more and more concerned about his power and his connections with Europe. In 1632, Sultan Murad IV ordered an attack on Lebanon to remove Fakhr al-Din. This time, the prince decided to fight. But after his son was killed, he was defeated. He surrendered and was taken to Constantinople. Fakhr al-Din and one or two of his sons were accused of treason and executed on April 13, 1635.

Even though Fakhr ad-Din II's dream of full independence ended sadly, he greatly improved Lebanon's military and economy. He was known for his religious tolerance and tried to unite the country's different religious groups. He built a strong army and brought Italian architects and engineers to modernize the country. He also expanded Lebanon's territory, building forts and gaining control of Palestine.

Lebanese people often see Fakhr ad-Din as the best leader the country has ever had. He treated all religions equally and is seen as the one who truly shaped Lebanon. The country reached great heights during his rule.

The Shihabs: A New Ruling Family

The Shihabs took over from the Maans in 1697 after the Battle of Ain Dara. This battle was a clash between two Druze clans, the Qaysis and the Yemenis. The Qaysis, led by Ahmad Shihab, won and forced the Yemenis out of Lebanon. This greatly reduced the Druze population in Mount Lebanon, who were a majority at the time. This change helped the Christians become the majority. The Druze leaders voted for the Shihabs to rule Mount Lebanon and the Chouf region. The Shihabs originally came from Syria and settled in southern Lebanon.

The most famous Shihab ruler was Bashir Shihab II, who ruled Mount Lebanon from 1789 to 1840. In 1799, when Napoleon besieged Acre, Bashir remained neutral, refusing to help either side. Napoleon failed to conquer Acre, and Bashir's main opponent died in 1804.

The Shihabs were originally Sunni Muslim, but they converted to Christianity in the late 18th century.

Emir Bashir II: A Complex Leader

In 1788, Bashir Shihab II became the Emir. He was born poor but was elected leader. He ruled under Ottoman authority, controlling Mount Lebanon, the Biqa valley, and Jabal Amil, which is about two-thirds of modern Lebanon. He tried to reform taxes and break the old feudal system to weaken his rivals. His main rival was also named Bashir, Bashir Jumblatt, a wealthy Druze leader.

In 1822, the Ottoman governor of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with Muhammad Ali, the ruler of Egypt. During this conflict, there were massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces. Jumblatt represented the unhappy Druze, who felt left out of power and were angry about Bashir II's growing ties with the Maronites. Bashir II himself was a Maronite Christian.

Bashir II was overthrown when he supported Acre and fled to Egypt. He later returned and formed an army. Jumblatt gathered the Druze groups, and the war became a religious conflict. Maronites supported Bashir II, and Druze supported Bashir Jumblatt. There were massacres and battles between 1821 and 1825. In 1825, Bashir II, with Ottoman help, defeated Jumblatt in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt was later killed. Bashir II was very harsh on the Druze rebellion. This made him the only leader of Mount Lebanon. However, some saw Bashir II as a harsh leader because Jumblatt had been his friend and had saved his life before.

Bashir II sought allies outside Lebanon, looking for trade, weapons, and money from Europe. He disarmed the Druze and allied with France. He governed in the name of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali, who took control of Lebanon in 1832. For the next eight years, the divisions between religious groups and feudal families grew. The Druze became poorer, and the Maronites became wealthier.

During the 19th century, Beirut became the most important port in the region. This was mainly because Mount Lebanon became a center for silk production, which was exported to Europe. This industry made the region rich but also dependent on Europe. Since most silk went to Marseille, the French started to have a big influence in Lebanon.

Sectarian Conflict and European Intervention

Discontent grew into open rebellion, supported by Ottoman and British money. Bashir II fled, and the Ottoman Empire regained control. They appointed another Shihab family member, Bashir III, who did not last long. In 1841, conflicts between the poor Druze and the Maronite Christians exploded. There was a massacre of Christians by Druze at Deir al Qamar. The Ottomans tried to make peace by dividing Mount Lebanon into a Christian district and a Druze district. But this only created separate power bases for the warring groups. It led to more civil conflict, including a Maronite revolt against the feudal system, which ended in 1858.

The relationship between the Druze and Christians has generally been peaceful, with friendly relations throughout history. However, there were some difficult periods, including the 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war.

In 1860, full-scale sectarian war broke out. The Maronites openly opposed the Ottoman Empire. France supported the Maronite Christians, and Britain supported the Druze. This made religious and economic tensions worse. The Druze began burning Maronite villages, and Maronite fighters attacked back. However, the Maronites were pushed into a few strongholds and were close to military defeat. European powers then stepped in. French forces were sent to Beirut to enforce a decision. The Druze were recognized as having control, and the Maronites were given a semi-independent region around Mount Lebanon. The entire area was placed under the direct rule of the governor of Damascus, and watched closely by the Ottoman Empire.

The long siege of Deir al Qamar saw Maronite fighters holding out against Druze forces, who were backed by Ottoman soldiers. In July 1860, with European intervention threatening, the Turkish government tried to stop the fighting. But Napoleon III of France sent 7,000 troops to Beirut and helped divide the region. The Druze control was recognized, and the Maronites were confined to a mountainous area, cut off from the Biqa valley and Beirut. This led to growing poverty and resentment, which would resurface later.

Youssef Bey Karam, a Lebanese nationalist, played an important role in Lebanon's independence during this time.

Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries

The Maronite Catholics and the Druze helped create modern Lebanon in the early 18th century. They did this through a system called "Maronite-Druze dualism" in Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate. The rest of the 19th century was relatively stable. Muslim, Druze, and Maronite groups focused on growing their economy and culture. This led to the founding of the American University of Beirut and a boom in writing and political activity. Towards the end of the century, there was a short Druze uprising due to harsh government and high taxes.

As World War I approached, Beirut became a center for various reform movements. Delegates from Beirut attended conferences in Paris, discussing different ideas for the future. Some wanted a unified Arab nation, others wanted Beirut to be separate, and some wanted to reform the Ottoman government. The Young Turk revolution brought these ideas to the forefront. However, when the war started, Lebanon suffered greatly.

The Great Famine (1915–1918)

About half the population of Mount Lebanon, mostly Maronites, died from starvation between 1915 and 1918. This was known as the Great Famine of Mount Lebanon. It happened because of a mix of crop failures, harsh government actions, a naval blockade by the Allies, and an Ottoman military ban on exports from Syria into Lebanon during World War I.

French Mandate (1920-1939)

After the Ottoman Empire fell apart after World War I, the League of Nations gave France control over the five areas that make up present-day Lebanon. The borders were decided at the San Remo conference in 1920.

France wanted to control as much land as possible. They moved the Lebanon-Syrian border to the Anti-Lebanon Mountains, east of the Beqaa Valley. This area had historically been part of Damascus for hundreds of years. This change doubled the territory under Beirut's control, at the expense of what would become Syria.

In 1919, the Lebanese delegation, led by Maronite Patriarch Elias Peter Hoayek, asked the Paris Peace Conference for a much larger Lebanon. They argued that the new areas were naturally part of Lebanon. This request was driven by fears after nearly half of the population died in the Great Famine. The Maronite church wanted a state that could better provide for its people. The areas they wanted included coastal cities like Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon, and Tyre, along with their surrounding lands.

This also greatly changed Lebanon's population. The added territory had mostly Muslim or Druze people. Lebanese Christians, especially Maronites, became just over 50% of the population. The number of Sunni Muslims in Lebanon increased eight times, and Shi'ite Muslims four times.

The modern Lebanese constitution, written in 1926, set up a power-sharing system between different religious groups. France designed it to ensure that its Christian allies had political control. The president had to be a Christian (usually a Maronite), and the prime minister a Sunni Muslim. Based on the 1932 census, parliament seats were divided with a six-to-five ratio for Christians to Muslims. The president could veto any law, making sure this ratio wouldn't change even if the population did. By 1960, Muslims were thought to be the majority, which led to their unhappiness with the political system.

World War II and Independence

During World War II, when the Vichy government took power in France in 1940, General Henri Dentz was appointed high commissioner of Lebanon. This led to the resignation of Lebanese president Émile Eddé in April 1941. The Vichy authorities allowed Nazi Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria. Britain, fearing Nazi Germany would gain control of Lebanon and Syria, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.

After the fighting, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under pressure, he decided to recognize Lebanon's independence. On November 26, 1941, General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the Free French government.

Elections were held in 1943. On November 8, 1943, the new Lebanese government declared an end to the French mandate. The French reacted by putting the new government officials in prison. But because of international pressure, the French released them on November 22, 1943, and accepted Lebanon's independence.

Republic of Lebanon: Modern Times

Independence and Early Years

The Allied forces kept control of the region until the end of World War II. The last French troops left in 1946.

Since independence, Lebanon's history has seen times of political calm and trouble. Beirut became a major center for finance and trade, earning the nickname "Paris of the Middle East." This lasted until the Lebanese Civil War began.

After the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanon became home to over 110,000 Palestinian refugees.

Economic Growth and Rising Tensions

In 1958, during President Camille Chamoun's last months, a rebellion broke out. The United States Marines were briefly sent to Beirut. After this crisis, a new government was formed, led by General Fuad Chehab.

During the 1960s, Lebanon was relatively peaceful and prosperous. Beirut's tourism and banking sectors thrived. Lebanon reached its economic peak in the mid-1960s. It was seen as a strong economy by the oil-rich Arab states, whose money made Lebanon one of the fastest-growing economies. This period ended suddenly with the collapse of Yousef Beidas' Intra Bank, the country's largest bank, in 1966.

More Palestinian refugees arrived after the 1967 Arab–Israeli War. After their defeat in the Jordanian civil war, thousands of Palestinian fighters, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), moved to Lebanon. They planned to attack Israel from Lebanon. Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants began using southern Lebanon to launch attacks on Israel.

Two of these attacks led to a major event. In July 1968, a group hijacked an Israeli civilian plane. In December, two gunmen shot at an Israeli plane in Athens, killing one person. As a result, two days later, Israeli commandos raided Beirut's international airport. They destroyed over a dozen civilian airliners. Israel said Lebanon was responsible for encouraging the Palestinian group. This raid, meant to make Lebanon crack down on militants, instead divided Lebanese society on the Palestinian issue. This deepened the split between pro-Palestinian and anti-Palestinian groups. Muslims generally supported the Palestinians, while Maronites mostly opposed them. This dispute reflected growing tensions between Christians and Muslims over political power, which eventually led to the civil war in 1975.

Meanwhile, armed Lebanese forces fought with Palestinian fighters. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser helped negotiate the 1969 "Cairo Agreement" between Arafat and the Lebanese government. This agreement gave the PLO control over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel. In return, the PLO recognized Lebanon's authority. This agreement angered Maronites, who felt too many concessions were made to the Palestinians. Pro-Maronite groups were formed to fill the gap left by government forces. The Phalange, a Maronite militia, became very important around this time.

In September 1970, Suleiman Franjieh was elected president. In November, his friend Hafez al-Assad took power in Syria. Later, in 1976, Franjieh invited the Syrians into Lebanon.

The PLO used its new powers to create a "mini-state" in southern Lebanon. They increased their attacks on Israeli settlements. Lebanon also received more armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his Fatah movement, who fled the 1970 Jordanian crackdown. Palestinian attacks killed many people in northern Israel. Israel responded with bombing raids in southern Lebanon. Before 1968, Lebanon had no conflict with Israel. But after 1968, Lebanon's southern border saw increasing attacks and retaliations, leading to civil war and foreign invasions. The effects of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon are still felt today.

The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)

The Lebanese Civil War started from old conflicts and political compromises in Lebanon. It was made worse by changing population trends, religious disagreements, and its closeness to Syria, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and Israel. By 1975, Lebanon was a diverse country with many groups: Maronite Christians, Eastern Orthodox Christians, Sunni Muslims, and Shia Muslims. There were also significant minorities like Druze, Kurds, Armenians, and Palestinian refugees.

Many events contributed to the war, including Arab Nationalism, the Cold War, the Arab–Israeli conflict, and the presence of Palestinian militants.

It's estimated that over 100,000 people were killed and another 100,000 injured during the 16-year war. About 900,000 people, or one-fifth of the population, were forced from their homes. Thousands lost limbs due to landmines.

The war had several phases: the initial outbreak in the mid-1970s, Syrian and then Israeli involvement in the late 1970s, the PLO-Israeli conflict growing in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of international involvement, and finally, a resolution that involved Syrian occupation.

Christian control of the government, guaranteed by the constitution, was increasingly criticized by Muslims and leftists. They joined forces as the National Movement in 1969, calling for a new census and a new government structure. Political tension turned into military conflict, leading to full civil war in April 1975. The leadership asked for Syrian help in 1976, leading to Syrian troops in Lebanon. An Arab summit in 1976 tried to stop the crisis.

In the south, fighting between Israel and the PLO led Israel to support Saad Haddad's South Lebanon Army (SLA). This was to create a safe zone along Israel's northern border. Israel invaded Lebanon in March 1978 in response to Fatah attacks. They occupied most of the area south of the Litani River. This caused at least 100,000 Lebanese to flee and about 2,000 deaths.

The UN Security Council passed Resolution 425, calling for Israel to withdraw and creating the UN Interim Force in Lebanon (UNIFIL) to keep peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving the SLA to control a border strip as a buffer against PLO attacks. Besides fighting between religious groups, there was also rivalry among Maronite groups.

Tension between Syria and the Phalange increased Israeli support for the Maronite group. This led to direct Israeli-Syrian clashes in April 1981, which led to American diplomatic intervention. A ceasefire was agreed upon in May.

Fighting between Palestinian groups and between the PLO and Israel continued. In July 1981, a ceasefire was brokered between the PLO and Israel.

After more PLO-Israeli fighting, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6, 1982, in Operation Peace for Galilee. By June 15, Israeli units were outside Beirut. Yassir Arafat tried to negotiate the PLO's evacuation. It's estimated that about 20,000 people were killed during this campaign, including many civilians. A multinational force arrived to ensure the PLO's departure and protect civilians. Nearly 15,000 Palestinian fighters left by September 1.

Although Bashir Gemayel did not publicly work with the Israelis, his past cooperation with Israel was held against him by many Lebanese, especially Muslims. He was elected president on August 23, 1982, by a very small margin. Most Muslim members of the assembly did not vote. Nine days before he was to take office, Gemayel was killed in an explosion in Beirut on September 14, 1982.

Phalangists entered Palestinian camps on September 16 and stayed until September 19. They killed 700–800 Palestinians in what is known as the Sabra and Shatila massacre. It's believed the Phalangists saw this as revenge for Gemayel's assassination and for an earlier massacre by PLO fighters in a Christian town.

Amine Gemayel, Bashir's older brother, became president from 1982 to 1988. He was seen as less charismatic than his brother, and many of Bashir's followers were unhappy.

Amine Gemayel focused on getting Israeli and Syrian forces to leave. An agreement in May 1983 said Israel would withdraw if Syrian troops also left. Syria opposed this and refused to withdraw, stopping further progress.

In 1983, the IDF withdrew southward, leaving the Chouf area. They would only stay in a "security zone" until 2000. This led to the Mountain War between the Druze Progressive Socialist Party and the Maronite Lebanese Forces. The Druze won the decisive battle, causing heavy losses to the Lebanese Forces. This resulted in Christians being forced out of Southern Mount Lebanon.

Strong attacks against U.S. and Western interests, including bombings of the US Embassy in 1983 and 1984, and the major attacks on the U.S. Marine and French barracks on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal.

The Lebanese Army almost collapsed in February 1984, led by the PSP and Amal. This was a major blow to the government. On March 5, the Lebanese Government canceled the May 1983 agreement. The US Marines left a few weeks later.

Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the "War of the Camps". The Shi'a Muslim Amal militia tried to drive the Palestinians out of their strongholds in Lebanon.

Fighting returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists, and Druze fighters allied against Amal. After winning, the PSP controlled West Beirut. The Syrians then entered Beirut. This fighting was fueled by the Syrians to take control of Beirut, using the excuse of stopping fights between the PSP and Amal. Violent clashes flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and Hezbollah.

Politically, Prime Minister Rashid Karami was killed on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term ended in September 1988. Before leaving, he appointed General Michel Aoun as acting Prime Minister. Muslim groups rejected this and supported Selim Hoss. Lebanon was then divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no president.

In February 1989, General Aoun launched the "War of liberation" against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon. His campaign had some foreign support, but the method was debated among Christians. In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups, attacked the Presidential Palace. Aoun was forced to seek refuge and later went into exile. October 13, 1990, is seen as the end of the civil war, with Syria playing a key role.

The Taif Agreement of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war. President Rene Mouawad was elected but was killed in a car bombing in Beirut on November 22. He was replaced by Elias Hrawi, who stayed in office until 1998.

In August 1990, the parliament agreed on changes to the constitution based on the Taif Agreement. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats, divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, a law was passed that pardoned most political crimes before that date.

In May 1991, most militias were dissolved, except for Hezbollah. The Lebanese Armed Forces slowly began to rebuild as Lebanon's only major non-religious institution.

Second Lebanese Republic: After the War

Since the war ended, Lebanon has held elections. Most militias have been weakened or disbanded. The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) have extended government control over about two-thirds of the country. Only Hezbollah kept its weapons, supported by the Lebanese parliament for defending Lebanon against Israeli occupation. Syria, however, kept its military presence in most of Lebanon, controlling government institutions and strengthening its occupation. Israeli forces finally left southern Lebanon in May 2000, but the Syrian occupation continued.

By late 1992, a new parliament was elected, and Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri formed a government. His appointment was seen as a sign that Lebanon would focus on rebuilding the country and its economy. Solidere, a company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, symbolized Hariri's plan to link economic recovery to private investment. After Émile Lahoud became president in 1998, Salim al-Hoss became Prime Minister again. Hariri returned as Prime Minister in November 2000. Although basic services still have problems, much of the civil war damage has been fixed, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned.

After the war, social and political instability, caused by economic problems and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to Prime Minister Omar Karami's resignation in May 1992. He was replaced by Rachid Solh, who oversaw Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years.

Lebanon has recovered somewhat from the war's damage, but the social and political divisions that caused the conflict are still there. Elections have been held with fewer problems, and Lebanese society generally has more freedoms than other Arab countries. However, there are ongoing religious tensions and concerns about Syrian and other outside influences.

In the late 1990s, the government took action against Sunni Muslim extremists in the north. On January 24, 2002, Elie Hobeika, a former Lebanese Forces figure linked to the Sabra and Shatila massacres, was killed in a car bombing in Beirut.

During Lebanon's civil war, Syria's troop presence was approved by the Lebanese Parliament in the Taif Agreement. Syria is credited with helping end the civil war in 1990. For 15 years, Syria and Lebanon said Syria's military presence was needed because the Lebanese army was weak and there were security threats. The Taif Agreement also said Hezbollah's militia should be disbanded, and the LAF should deploy along the border with Israel. The US and France said Lebanon's government was controlled by Syria.

Until 2005, 14,000–15,000 Syrian troops remained in Lebanon. Syria's refusal to leave after Israel's 2000 withdrawal caused criticism from Lebanese Maronite Christians and Druze, and later many Sunni Muslims. Lebanon's Shiites, and Hezbollah, supported the Syrian presence.

The United States began pressuring Syria to end its occupation. In 2004, many believed Syria pressured Lebanese MPs to change the constitution to allow pro-Syrian president Émile Lahoud to run for a third term. France, Germany, the United Kingdom, and many Lebanese politicians criticized this alleged Syrian interference.

On September 2, 2004, the UN Security Council passed UN Security Council Resolution 1559, calling for "all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias".

On May 25, 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from southern Lebanon. A small area called the Shebaa farms remains under Israeli control. The UN says Israel has withdrawn and considers the Shebaa Farms occupied Syrian territory. Lebanon and Syria say it is Lebanese territory. The UN has repeatedly called on Lebanon to control its southern border and deploy its army there. UN Security Council Resolution 1559 also requires Hezbollah's militia to be dismantled. However, Hezbollah remains along the border. Both Hezbollah and Israel have violated the border, according to the UN. The UN has urged all governments to influence Hezbollah to stop actions that increase tension.

On September 3, 2004, the National Assembly voted to allow President Émile Lahoud three more years in office. Many saw this as Syria pressuring Lebanon's Parliament. The USA said Syria pressured the National Assembly. Many Lebanese, including Maronite Patriarch Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir and Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, rejected it as against the constitution.

To many's surprise, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri, who strongly opposed this change, seemed to accept it. However, he later resigned in protest. He was killed soon after, starting the Cedar Revolution. This change went against UN Security Council Resolution 1559, which called for a new presidential election.

On October 1, 2004, Marwan Hamadeh, a former minister who opposed Lahoud's term extension, was targeted in a car bomb attack. He was wounded, and his driver was killed. Druze leader Walid Jumblatt said it was a clear message to the opposition.

On October 7, 2004, UN Secretary General Kofi Annan reported that Syria had not withdrawn its forces from Lebanon. He said it was time for all parties to move on from the past. On October 19, the UN Security Council voted unanimously to call on Syria to withdraw its troops, as per Resolution 1559.

On October 20, 2004, Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri resigned. The next day, Omar Karami, a supporter of Syria, was appointed Prime Minister.

On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Hariri was killed in a car bomb attack that killed 21 and wounded 100. On February 21, tens of thousands of Lebanese protested, calling for Syria's withdrawal and blaming Syria and President Lahoud for the murder.

Hariri's murder led to more international pressure on Syria. The UN sent a team to investigate the assassination. The UN investigation found "credible information" that Syrian officials had threatened witnesses and that Syrian intelligence documents on Lebanon had been burned.

A series of bomb attacks against anti-Syrian politicians, journalists, and neighborhoods also occurred.

On December 15, 2005, the UN Security Council extended the investigation's mandate.

On December 30, 2005, Syria's former vice-president, Abdul Halim Khaddam, said that "Hariri received many threats" from Syria's President Bashar Al-Assad.

Parliament voted to release former Lebanese Forces warlord Samir Geagea in July 2005. Geagea was the only civil war leader charged with crimes. With the return of Michel Aoun, the time was right to heal wounds and unite the country after Hariri's assassination. Geagea was released on July 26, 2005.

During the Cedar Revolution, Hezbollah organized pro-Syrian rallies. Hezbollah became part of the Lebanese government after the 2005 elections. However, it faced pressure from UNSCR 1559 to disband its militia. On November 21, 2005, Hezbollah attacked along the border with Israel. The UN Security Council accused Hezbollah of starting the fighting.

On December 27, 2005, rockets fired from Hezbollah territory hit houses in Israel. UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government to control its territory and stop such attacks. Lebanese Prime Minister Fuad Saniora condemned the attack. On December 30, the Lebanese army found and dismantled more rockets.

The 2006 Lebanon War was a 34-day military conflict in Lebanon and northern Israel. The main groups fighting were Hezbollah and the Israeli military. The conflict started on July 12, 2006, and ended with a United Nations-brokered ceasefire on August 14, 2006.

Instability and Syrian War Spillover

In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of a conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. Many soldiers, insurgents, and civilians were killed. Reconstruction funds for the area have been slow to arrive.

Between 2006 and 2008, protests led by groups against Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded a national unity government. This would give the mostly Shia opposition groups veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor, leaving Lebanon without a president.

On May 9, 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces took control of western Beirut. This was sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communication network was illegal. The Lebanese government called it a coup attempt. On May 21, 2008, the Doha Agreement ended the fighting. As part of the agreement, Michel Suleiman became president, and a national unity government was formed, giving the opposition veto power. This was a victory for the opposition, as the government agreed to their main demands.

In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to tensions from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. This tribunal was expected to charge Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination. The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, as Prime Minister. Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for Hariri's assassination. A newspaper report in November 2010 said that Hezbollah had plans to take over the country if the tribunal charged its members.

In 2012, the Syrian Civil War threatened to spread into Lebanon. This caused more religious violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli. By August 6, 2013, over 677,702 Syrian refugees were in Lebanon. As the number of Syrian refugees grew, some Lebanese parties feared that the country's political system, based on religious groups, was being undermined.

2019 Protests and Economic Crisis

In October 2019, country-wide protests began because of many government failures and problems. In the months before the protests, there was a growing financial crisis. Days before the protests, about 100 major wildfires in Lebanese areas displaced hundreds of people and caused huge damage. The Lebanese government could not use its firefighting equipment because of a lack of maintenance and misused funds. Lebanon had to rely on aid from neighboring countries. In November 2019, banks started limiting how much money people could withdraw, even though there was no official law for this.

The protests created a political crisis. Prime Minister Saad Hariri resigned, supporting the protesters' demands for a government of independent experts. A government led by Hassan Diab was formed in 2020.

2020 Central Bank Meltdown

At the same time as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Banque du Liban (BdL), Lebanon's central bank, failed to pay back $90 billion in debt in March 2020. This caused the value of the Lebanese pound to collapse. This decision was made by the government. The complex financial system that the BdL used to keep the country stable then crashed. Banks also limited how much money people could withdraw or transfer abroad. These limits were expected to stay until at least 2025. Lebanon, with a population under 7 million, produces little and imports about 80% of what it uses. Debt payments had taken up 30% of recent budgets.

In June 2020, the IMF estimated the losses at $49 billion. This was almost equal to 91% of Lebanon's total economic output in 2019. The Lebanese government agreed with these estimates. The value of the pound, which had been artificially set at £L1,507.5 per U.S. dollar, traded at £L5,000 to the dollar on the unofficial market in June 2020.

An audit of the BdL's 2018 finances, revealed in July, showed that the governor, Riad Salameh, had made up assets and used creative accounting. Two days earlier, the government had announced an audit of the BdL's finances.

Beirut Port Explosion and State of Emergency

On August 4, 2020, the Beirut explosion happened in the city's port. It destroyed many buildings and killed over 200 people. It was felt across the country. Four days later, on August 8, a peaceful protest started from the port, heading to the parliament building. Protesters faced brutal force, including live ammunition, from security forces. 728 protesters were injured, and at least 153 needed hospital treatment.

Amid popular anger, the entire government led by Hassan Diab resigned on August 10. A state of emergency was declared on August 13. This gave the army broad powers to prevent gatherings, censor media, and arrest anyone seen as a security threat. On August 14, Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah mentioned the possibility of civil war if anti-government protesters forced an early election. Meanwhile, the Iranian foreign minister complained about the presence of French and British warships helping with aid. Also on August 14, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA) asked for $565 million in aid for explosion victims. The UN focused on meals, first aid, shelters, and school repairs.

After Prime Minister Hassan Diab resigned in August 2020, both Mustafa Adib and Saad Hariri failed to form a government. Najib Mikati was chosen for the role on July 26, 2021. He received 72 votes out of 128 MPs. On September 10, 2021, Mikati formed a government. He announced that he wanted to ask for help from Arab countries to get Lebanon out of its crisis.

On October 14, 2021, clashes broke out in Beirut between the Christian militia Lebanese Forces and Hezbollah fighters, supported by the Amal Movement.

2022 Elections

In May 2022, Lebanon held its first election since a severe economic crisis pushed it close to becoming a failed state. Lebanon's crisis has been so bad that over 80% of the population is now considered poor by the United Nations. In the election, the Iran-backed Shia Muslim Hezbollah movement and its allies lost their majority in parliament. Hezbollah did not lose any of its own seats, but its allies lost seats. Hezbollah’s ally, President Michel Aoun's Free Patriotic Movement, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election. A rival Christian party, led by Samir Geagea, with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the Lebanese Forces (LF), gained seats. The Sunni Future Movement, led by former prime minister Saad Hariri, did not take part in the election, leaving a political gap for other Sunni politicians to fill.

Images for kids

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  Portrait of Fakhreddine while he was in Tuscany, stating "Faccardino grand emir dei Drusi" translated as "Fakhreddine: great emir of the Druze".

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  1862 map drawn by the French expedition of Beaufort d'Hautpoul.

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  Black dashed line shows the borders of the 1861–1918 Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate.

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  Lebanese dress from the late 19th century.

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  Portrait of Elie Hobeika.

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  Protesters in Beirut. Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque, 20 October 2019.

See also

• Archaeology of Lebanon
• Constitution of Lebanon
• Foreign relations of Lebanon
• History of the Middle East
  • History of Israel
  • History of Syria
• Lebanese Civil War
• Lebanese diaspora
• Politics of Lebanon
• Timeline of Lebanese history