Diplomacy of the American Civil War facts for kids
The diplomacy of the American Civil War was all about how the United States (the Union) and the Confederate States of America (the Confederacy) dealt with powerful countries around the world during the war from 1861 to 1865. The Union worked hard to stop other nations from officially recognizing the Confederacy. The Confederacy, on the other hand, really hoped that Britain and France would join the war on their side. They thought this would help them get cotton and weaken the growing United States.
Even though all major countries stayed officially neutral, they did see the Confederacy as a group fighting a war, which gave them certain rights. Some countries tried to benefit from the war. Spain briefly took back its old colony, the Dominican Republic, but lost it again in 1865. More seriously, France, led by Emperor Napoléon III, tried to put Maximilian I of Mexico in charge of Mexico. This was to reduce American influence. France even asked Britain to help them recognize the Confederacy. However, President Lincoln warned that recognizing the Confederacy would be like declaring war on the Union.
Britain's textile factories needed cotton from the South. But they had enough cotton stored for about a year. Also, British factory owners and workers didn't have much power in politics. Britain knew that a war with the Union would stop important food shipments, harm their merchant ships, and could lead to an invasion of Canada. So, Britain and its strong Royal Navy refused to join France.
Historians say that the Union's diplomacy was very good. Their skilled diplomats handled many difficult situations. British leaders had some sympathy for the Confederacy, but they never wanted to risk war with the Union. France was even more sympathetic to the Confederacy. But France was worried about Prussia and wouldn't do anything without Britain's full help. Confederate diplomats were not very good at their job. Other countries played smaller roles. Russia showed some support for the Union, but its importance is often overstated.
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The United States' Approach to Diplomacy
In 1861, Lincoln's foreign policy wasn't very strong. He struggled to get public support in Europe. Union diplomats had to explain that the United States was not fighting to end slavery right away. Instead, they argued that states could not legally leave the Union.
Confederate spokesmen were much better at getting their message across. They didn't talk about slavery. Instead, they focused on their fight for freedom and their belief in free trade. They also highlighted how important cotton was to Europe's economy. Most European leaders weren't impressed by the Union's legal arguments. They thought it was strange that the U.S. would deny the South the same independence it won from Britain years earlier.
Also, since the Union wasn't committed to ending slavery, it was hard to convince Europeans, especially the British, that the rebels of 1776 (who formed the U.S.) were different from the rebels of 1861 (who formed the Confederacy). Even more, the rich families in Europe, who held most of the power, were happy to see America's experiment with self-government seem to fail. They welcomed the idea of the growing American Republic breaking apart.
For many years, historians have debated who was most important in shaping the Union's diplomacy. Early on, William H. Seward, the Secretary of State, was seen as someone who disliked Britain and controlled a weak president. Later, Lincoln's reputation improved. Historians now see Lincoln as quietly effective behind the scenes. More recent studies show Seward's important leadership role. Lincoln still gets high praise for his moral leadership. He helped define the war as a fight for democracy and freedom. Many studies also show the important roles of Charles Sumner, who led the Senate Foreign Relations committee, and Charles Francis Adams Sr., who was the minister to the United Kingdom. Historians have also studied the hard-working team of diplomats, bankers, and spies the Union had across Europe.
Confederate Diplomatic Challenges
Before 1860, those who strongly supported the Confederacy didn't pay much attention to Europe. Confederates had always believed that "King Cotton" ruled. This meant they thought Britain *had* to support the Confederacy to get cotton. However, the American Civil War proved this idea wrong. One historian, Peter Parish, said that the South's focus only on itself was a big mistake. He explained that the South had built a wall around itself to keep out new ideas. Now, those inside couldn't see what was happening outside.
Once the war started, the Confederacy hoped for military help from the United Kingdom and France. But the UK wasn't as dependent on Southern cotton as the Confederates thought. Britain had enough cotton stored for over a year. They also found new sources of cotton, mainly from India and Egypt. The UK didn't want to risk war with the U.S. to get more cotton. A war would mean losing the large amounts of food they imported from the North.
Meanwhile, the Confederate government lost control of its own foreign policy. Cotton farmers and traders decided on their own to stop sending cotton to Europe in early 1861. This was a huge and costly mistake. It kept millions of dollars in much-needed cash away from the Confederacy.
The Confederate government sent diplomats to Europe, but they didn't succeed in their goals. James Murray Mason went to London, and John Slidell went to Paris. They had unofficial meetings, but neither got official recognition for the Confederacy. However, Confederate agents in Europe who bought supplies were more successful. They often worked with blockade runners funded by British bankers. For example, James Dunwoody Bulloch was key to getting warships for the Confederate Navy.
Confederate writers and speakers, especially Henry Hotze and James Williams, were somewhat good at getting European public opinion on their side. Hotze worked as a Confederate agent in the UK. He used ideas of self-determination, like those from the failed European revolutions of 1848, to argue for Southern independence. He also promised that the Confederacy would have low taxes on imports, unlike the high-tax United States. He always stressed that the Union's blockade of Southern ports was causing cotton shortages and hurting factory workers in Britain.
In March 1862, James Murray Mason reached England. He worked with some British politicians to push the British government to ignore the Union blockade. Mason and his friends argued it was just a "paper blockade," meaning it wasn't actually strong enough to be legal under international law. However, most British politicians disagreed. This was because Britain saw blockades as a very effective naval weapon, as shown in earlier wars.
A Confederate agent named Father John B. Bannon, a Catholic priest, went to Rome in 1863. He tried to convince Pope Pius IX to officially recognize the Confederacy, but he failed. Bannon then went to Ireland. There, he tried to get support for the Confederacy and stop Union recruiters from getting Irishmen to join the Union army. Despite his efforts, thousands of Irish immigrants volunteered to join the Union.
The United Kingdom's Role
The British government made the big decisions about war and peace. They were very careful, knowing the risks to trade. Rich and powerful people in Britain often favored the Confederacy. However, the general public tended to support the United States.
Throughout the war, a lot of trade continued between Britain and the United States. Americans sent grain to Britain, while Britain sent manufactured goods and weapons. People also continued to move from Britain to the United States. British trade with the Confederacy dropped by 95%. Only a small amount of cotton went to Britain, and some weapons got in through small blockade runners. Most of these ships were owned and run by British businesses.
Prime Minister Lord Palmerston was sympathetic to the Confederacy. Even though he said he was against the slave trade and slavery, he had always disliked the United States. He believed that if the Union broke apart, it would weaken the U.S. and make Britain stronger. He also thought the Southern Confederacy would be a good market for British goods.
Britain officially declared its neutrality on May 13, 1861. The Confederacy was recognized as a group fighting a war. But it was too soon to recognize the South as a separate country. Washington had threatened that recognizing the Confederacy would be seen as an act of war. Britain relied more on American food imports than Confederate cotton. So, a war with the U.S. would not be good for Britain's economy. Palmerston sent more troops to Canada. He was convinced the Union would make peace with the South and then invade Canada. He was happy about the Confederate victory at the First Battle of Bull Run in July 1861. But 15 months later, he wrote that the American War seemed to have no real goal for the North, except to get rid of Irish and German immigrants. He also noted that both sides showed great courage.
The Trent Affair: 1861
A serious diplomatic problem with the United States happened during the "Trent Affair" in November 1861. A U.S. Navy ship stopped a British ship called the Trent. They took two Confederate diplomats, James Murray Mason and John Slidell, off the ship. People in the United States celebrated the capture of these Confederate representatives.
However, the U.S. action made Britain very angry and caused a diplomatic crisis. Palmerston called the action "a clear and major insult." He sent a message demanding the release of the two diplomats. He also ordered 3,000 troops to Canada. In a letter to Queen Victoria on December 5, 1861, he said that if his demands were not met, Britain was in a better position than ever to strike a severe blow to the United States. In another letter, he thought war between Britain and the Union was likely. Luckily, Queen Victoria's husband, Prince Albert, stepped in. He helped to soften Palmerston's message. It became a demand for an explanation and an apology for a mistake.
Even though the public approved of the capture, U.S. President Lincoln knew the U.S. could not afford to fight Britain. He accepted the softened message. The U.S. released the prisoners to a British warship. Palmerston believed that having troops in British North America convinced the U.S. to agree.
Cotton and the British Economy
Britain's Industrial Revolution grew because of its textile factories. These factories mostly used cotton imported from the American South. The war cut off these supplies. By 1862, cotton stocks ran out. Imports from Egypt and India couldn't make up the difference. This caused great hardship for factory owners and especially for unemployed factory workers. The problems in the British textile industry were a big part of the debate about helping the Confederacy. Breaking the Union blockade would give Britain access to Southern cotton again.
Historians still disagree about British public opinion. Some say that the rich favored the Confederacy. They argue that British liberals and working-class leaders supported the Union because it was against slavery. Others say that many British working men, maybe most, were more sympathetic to the Confederate cause. A third group says it's more complicated. They note that most Britons didn't express an opinion. Local studies show that some towns supported one side, while nearby areas supported the other. The most detailed study by Richard J. M. Blackett found huge differences across Britain. He argues that the working class and religious nonconformists tended to support the Union. Support for the Confederacy mostly came from conservatives who were against reform movements in Britain and from high Church Anglicans.
Humanitarian Concerns, 1862
The idea of Britain and France stepping into the war was discussed in 1862. Palmerston was very worried about the economic crisis in the Lancashire textile mills. Cotton supplies had mostly run out, and unemployment was very high. He seriously thought about breaking the Union blockade of Southern ports to get cotton. But by this time, the United States Navy was large enough to threaten British merchant ships. Also, Canada could be easily captured.
A new situation arose when Lincoln announced the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862. Many British leaders expected a massive conflict to break out in the American South. They thought there would be so many deaths that they should step in to stop the bloodshed. William Ewart Gladstone, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, started a cabinet discussion about whether Britain should intervene. Gladstone had a good view of the Confederacy. He stressed the need for humanitarian intervention to stop the huge death toll, the risk of a conflict, and the Union's failure to win decisive military victories.
In response, Secretary of War Sir George Cornewall Lewis argued against intervention. He said it was a very risky plan that could lead to huge losses. Also, Palmerston had other worries at the same time. These included a crisis over King Otto of Greece, where Russia threatened to take advantage of the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses. The Cabinet decided that the American situation was less urgent than stopping Russia's expansion. So, they rejected intervention. Palmerston turned down Napoléon III's idea for the two powers to settle the war. He ignored all future attempts by the Confederacy to get British recognition.
Blockade Runners
Many British bankers built and operated most of the blockade runners. They spent huge amounts of money on them. This was legal and didn't cause serious problems between the countries. These ships were crewed by sailors and officers on leave from the Royal Navy. When the U.S. Navy captured a blockade runner, they sold the ship and its cargo as a prize of war for the American sailors. Then, they released the crew.
The Alabama
A long-lasting problem was a British shipyard (John Laird and Sons) building two warships for the Confederacy. One was the famous CSS Alabama. The United States government strongly protested this. The issue was settled after the war in the Treaty of Washington (1871). This treaty included the resolution of the Alabama Claims. Britain paid the United States $15.5 million after an international court decided on the damages caused by these British-built warships.
Canada
The Union successfully recruited soldiers in Canada. Local officials allowed Confederate agents to be there, even though the Union protested. These agents planned attacks on U.S. cities and tried to encourage people to oppose the war. They actually carried out a small raid in late 1864 on St. Albans, Vermont. They robbed three banks of $208,000 and killed an American. The raiders escaped back into Canada. The Canadian government arrested them, but then released them.
Slave Trade
Britain had long pushed the United States to do more to stop the Atlantic slave trade. Both nations had outlawed it in 1807. Pressure from Southern states had stopped this, but the Lincoln administration was now eager to act. In the Lyons–Seward Treaty of 1862, the United States gave Great Britain full power to crack down on the transatlantic slave trade when carried out by American slave ships.
France's Role
The Second French Empire, under Napoléon III, stayed officially neutral throughout the war. It never recognized the Confederate States of America. It did recognize the Confederacy as a group fighting a war. France's textile industry needed cotton. Also, Napoleon III had plans to expand his empire in Mexico, which could be greatly helped by the Confederacy. The United States had warned that recognizing the Confederacy meant war. France didn't want to act alone without Britain's help, and Britain refused to intervene. Emperor Napoleon III realized that a war with the U.S. without allies would be a disaster for France. Following advice from his foreign ministers, Napoleon III was careful. He kept correct diplomatic relations with Washington. About half of the French newspapers supported the Union, while the "imperial" newspapers were more sympathetic to the Confederacy. Most people in France didn't pay much attention to the war, showing more interest in Mexico.
Mexico
In 1861, Mexican conservatives wanted French leader Napoléon III to get rid of the Republic led by President Benito Juárez. France favored the Confederacy but didn't officially recognize it. The French hoped that a Confederate victory would make it easier for France to control Mexico economically. Napoleon helped the Confederacy by sending urgently needed supplies through the Mexican ports of Matamoros and Brownsville, Texas. The Confederacy itself tried to build closer ties with Mexico. Juárez turned them down. However, the Confederates worked well with local leaders in northern Mexico and with the French invaders.
France knew that Washington couldn't interfere in Mexico as long as the Confederacy controlled Texas. So, France invaded Mexico in 1861. They put an Austrian prince, Maximilian I of Mexico, in charge as their puppet ruler in 1864. Because Juárez's democratically elected government and Lincoln's government shared similar beliefs, Matías Romero, Juárez's minister to Washington, got support in the U.S. Congress. He also raised money, soldiers, and ammunition in the United States for the war against Maximilian. Washington repeatedly protested France's violation of the Monroe Doctrine.
Once the Union won the war in spring 1865, the U.S. allowed Juárez's supporters to openly buy weapons and ammunition. They also sent stronger warnings to Paris. Washington sent General William Tecumseh Sherman with 50,000 experienced soldiers to the Mexican border. This showed that time was running out for the French in Mexico. Napoleon III had no choice but to pull his outnumbered army out in shame. Emperor Maximilian refused to leave and was executed by the Mexican government in 1867.
Other Countries and the War
Prussia
Prussia was busy trying to unite the different German states. So, it didn't take part in the American Civil War. However, some Prussian military members served as officers and soldiers in both armies. Many men who had moved to the United States from Prussia also fought. Official military observers were sent to North America to study the tactics of both armies. Future military leaders of Prussia and later unified Germany studied these observations.
One effect Prussia had on the war was the new saddle used by the Union cavalry. Union General George B. McClellan had studied Prussian saddles and used them as a model for his McClellan saddle.
Russia
Relations between Russia and the Union were generally friendly. Russia was the only major European power to openly support the Union. This was mainly because Russia saw the U.S. as a balance to the British Empire.
In the winter of 1861–1862, the Imperial Russian Navy sent two fleets to American waters. This was to prevent them from being trapped if a war broke out with Britain and France. Many Americans at the time thought this was Russia helping the Union, but historians say it wasn't. The Alexander Nevsky and other ships stayed in American waters for seven months.
In 1865, a big project was attempted: building a Russian–American telegraph line. It would go from Seattle, Washington, through British Columbia, Russian America (Alaska), and Siberia. This was an early attempt to connect East and West communications. It failed and was never used.
In 1863, Russia brutally put down a large uprising in Poland during the January Uprising. Many Polish resistance leaders fled the country. Confederate agents tried, but failed, to get them to come to America to join the Confederacy.
Brazil
Although officially neutral, the Empire of Brazil was an unofficial friend of the Confederacy. Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil gave special treatment to Confederate Navy ships. He allowed them to get supplies in Brazilian ports. This helped the Confederate navy attack Union ships in the South Atlantic. The Brazilian government recognized the Confederacy as a "belligerent." It refused Union demands to treat Confederate ships as "pirates." It also ignored protests from Washington demanding the removal of the CSS Sumter from a port in Maranhão on September 6, 1861. Similarly, in 1863, the U.S. ambassador to Brazil, James Watson Webb, complained to the Brazilian Foreign Minister about two Confederate ships, the Alabama and the Georgia. These ships had been getting supplies and repairs at ports in Pernambuco and Bahia. Webb called this a "gross breach of neutrality."
After the war, thousands of Confederates moved to Brazil. They were invited by Dom Pedro II and received money from the Brazilian government.
Austria
Because of Austria's influence in Mexico (where they installed Maximilian I of Mexico), the Austrians hoped for a Confederate victory. This would protect the House of Habsburg in Mexico, as the Union couldn't enforce its Monroe Doctrine during the Civil War. Austria gathered about 2,000 more volunteers to fight for the Mexican imperialists and protect Maximilian. This effort was canceled when Union diplomats threatened to take action against Austria on behalf of the Mexican Republic.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire strongly favored the Union. They signed a trade deal with the Union and banned Confederate ships from entering their waters. The Ottoman Empire benefited from the Union's blockade of Confederate ports. As a result, the cotton industry in the empire (including places like Egypt) became Europe's largest supplier of cotton.
The Netherlands
The Lincoln administration looked for places to relocate freed slaves who wanted to leave the United States. They started talks with the Dutch government about African American migration and settlement in the Dutch colony of Suriname in South America. Nothing came of this idea, and it was dropped after 1864.
Kingdom of Italy
The Italian military leader Giuseppe Garibaldi was one of the most famous people in Europe who supported freedom. Washington sent a diplomat to invite him to become an American general. Garibaldi turned down the offer. He would not be given supreme power over all the armies, and the United States was not yet committed to ending slavery. Historians agree that it was probably for the best, as he was too independent to work smoothly with the U.S. government.
Tokugawa Japan
During the Civil War, the Union took on the role of enforcing American trade and extraterritoriality in Japan. This came from the Convention of Kanagawa and later unequal treaties. At this time, the U.S. had ports open for trade in Shimoda, Hakodate, Yokohama, Nagasaki, and Niigata. Japan had hoped that the Civil War would allow them to regain control of their land if the U.S. was busy with its own war. However, the Union sent the USS Wyoming to Japan to protect its interests. This ship fought in the Battle of Shimonoseki Straits during the Shimonoseki campaign against the Chōshū Domain. This was in response to the Imperial order to expel "barbarians." The Lincoln administration showed European powers that the Union could protect its interests even during a civil war. This further strained Japan's relations with the Union. After the war, the decommissioned ironclad CSS Stonewall was later given to the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Siam
Before the war, King Rama IV of Siam offered to send war elephants to the Union for military and logistical use. The offer reached Lincoln during the Civil War. Lincoln declined, saying that the American climate would not support elephants. He also said that the steam engine would provide the same benefits as a war elephant.
The War's Impact on the World
Historian Don H. Doyle argues that the Union victory had a huge impact on world history. The Union's win strengthened democratic movements around the world. A Confederate victory, on the other hand, would have meant a new beginning for slavery, not freedom. Historian Fergus Bordewich, agreeing with Doyle, says that the North's victory clearly showed that democratic government could last. If the Confederacy had won, it would have created an American example of old-fashioned politics and race-based oppression. This would likely have cast a shadow internationally into the twentieth century and perhaps beyond.
After the War
Union relations with Britain (and Canada) were tense. Canada was seen as at fault in the St. Albans Raid into Vermont in 1864. The Canadian government captured the Confederates who robbed a bank and killed an American, but then released them. This angered American public opinion. London pushed for the Canadian Confederation in 1867. This was partly a way to deal with the American challenge without relying on support from the British military.
The U.S. looked the other way when Irish activists called Fenians tried and failed badly in an invasion of Canada in 1871. The settlement of the Alabama Claims in 1872 helped improve relations. The British paid the United States $15.5 million for the economic damage caused by Confederate warships bought from Britain. Congress bought Alaska from Russia in the Alaska Purchase in 1867. But otherwise, it rejected ideas for any major expansions, such as President Ulysses Grant's idea to acquire Santo Domingo.
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