History of Slovakia facts for kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

The history of Slovakia tells the story of this land from ancient times until today. It's a journey through many different periods, showing how people lived, what they created, and how the country changed over thousands of years.

Ancient Times in Slovakia

The land of Slovakia has been home to people for a very long time. Scientists found old tools made using a special technique near Nové Mesto nad Váhom, showing people lived here during the Stone Age. Other discoveries include stone tools near Bojnice and even bones of a Neanderthal person near Gánovce.

Later, a culture called Gravettian lived in the river valleys like Nitra and Váh. A famous old artwork from this time is the Venus of Moravany, a small statue found near Moravany nad Váhom.

During the New Stone Age, people settled in places like Želiezovce and Domica cave. The Bronze Age brought different cultures, known for their pottery and burial styles. Then, in the early Iron Age, the Hallstatt culture was important.

Roman Times and Celts

The Celts were the first people in Slovakia that we know about from written records. They arrived from the west around 400 BC. They settled in the lowlands along the Danube river. The local people either joined them or moved to the mountains in the north.

In the 1st century BC, some Celtic hill forts grew into important towns. For example, the fort at Zemplín was a center for making iron. Glass was made at Liptovská Mara, and coins were even made in Bratislava and Liptovská Mara.

Around 60 BC, Burebista, the King of the Dacians, took over many Celtic tribes. But his empire fell apart after he died. Dacian groups then settled among the Celts in some areas of Slovakia.

The Romans and Germanic tribes started to move into the Middle Danube region around the end of the 1st century BC. Roman soldiers crossed the Danube near Bratislava in 6 AD to fight the Germanic Quadi tribe. The Romans later settled some Quadi people in the lowlands between the Morava and Váh rivers.

Even though the Danube was the border, the Romans built small outposts on the other side, like at Iža and Devín. Roman troops crossed the Danube many times during the Marcomannic Wars (160-180 AD). Emperor Marcus Aurelius even wrote part of his famous book Meditations during a campaign near the Hron River in 172 AD.

Medieval History

New Peoples Arrive

In the 4th century AD, the Roman Empire became weaker. The Huns, a powerful nomadic group, took control of the Carpathian Basin in the early 5th century. Many Germanic tribes, including the Quadi, became subjects of Attila the Hun.

After Attila died in 453 AD, his empire broke apart. The Germanic tribes either became free or left the area. Graves from this time show many weapons, meaning there were warriors around. Other finds show that people in Slovakia had connections with the Frankish Empire and even Scandinavia.

The Slavs Arrive

Historians believe the first Slavic groups settled in eastern Slovakia as early as the 4th century. By the 6th century, settlements with a new style of pottery appeared. These settlements usually had about 10 small huts with stone ovens. Most historians connect these settlements with the spread of the early Slavs.

The Byzantine historian Procopius wrote about Slavs in Central Europe in the 6th century. He mentioned a group of Heruli who "passed through the territory of all of the Sclavenes" (Slavs). This suggests Slavs lived in the Morava river region.

The Germanic Longobards moved into the Middle Danube area in the early 6th century. However, they mostly avoided Slovakia, settling only in the northwest part. This meant Slovakia, unlike nearby Moravia, was not part of a German empire at this time.

Avar Rule

The Longobards left the Carpathian Basin in 568 AD when the Avars invaded. The Avars were nomadic warriors who took over the region and launched raids. By the time the Avars arrived, Slavs had settled in most of what is now Slovakia. More Slavs came, pushed by the Avars, strengthening the local Slavic population.

The Frankish Chronicle of Fredegar from the 7th century says that the Avars used Slavs as soldiers. It also says that the Slavs rebelled against the Avars and chose a Frankish merchant named Samo as their king in 623 or 624 AD. Samo's rule lasted for 35 years, but his kingdom fell apart after he died. Its exact borders are not known, but it was likely near the Danube and Morava rivers.

Later, in the 7th century, a new type of pottery appeared in Slovakia. Large burial sites with this pottery show that people lived in stable settlements. The Avars also directly controlled southern Slovakia, especially important centers like Devín and Komárno. In these areas, Slavs and Avars lived together and shared some customs.

In the 8th century, Slavs improved their farming and crafts. This allowed some people to become professional warriors. They started building strong, fortified settlements called hradisko, with thick walls and deep trenches. These findings suggest that a Slavic upper class began to form in the area that would become Great Moravia.

Wars between the Franks and Avars (788–803) led to the Avars' power declining. In 805, the Slavs attacked Avar centers like Devín and Komárno, pushing the Avars out of some areas.

Principality of Nitra

A text from around 870, called the Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum, says that Mojmir, the leader of the Moravians, forced a man named Pribina to leave his land. Pribina then joined Radbod, a leader in the Carolingian Empire.

This text also mentions that a church was built on Pribina's land at a place called "Nitrava." Many historians believe "Nitrava" was Nitra in present-day Slovakia. They think that when Mojmir I took over Pribina's Principality of Nitra, it led to the creation of a new state called "Great Moravia".

Archaeological finds show that several important fortified settlements in Slovakia fell around the time Pribina was expelled. It's not fully clear if this was due to internal changes or Moravian expansion.

Great Moravia

Sure and disputed borders of Great Moravia under Svatopluk I (according to modern historians)

Great Moravia began around 830 when Mojmír I united Slavic tribes north of the Danube. When Mojmír tried to become independent from the Frankish king in 846, King Louis the German replaced him with his nephew, Rastislav.

Rastislav wanted to be independent. He asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael III to send teachers who could explain Christianity in the Slavic language. So, in 863, two brothers, Saints Cyril and Methodius, arrived. Cyril created the first Slavic alphabet, called Glagolitic, and translated the Bible into Old Church Slavonic. Rastislav also built many fortified castles to protect his state.

During Rastislav's rule, his nephew Svätopluk was given the Principality of Nitra. Svätopluk later teamed up with the Franks and overthrew his uncle in 870. Svätopluk I (871–894) became king and made Great Moravia much larger. It included not only present-day Moravia and Slovakia but also parts of Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, and Poland. He also fought against the Hungarian tribes and the Bulgarian Empire.

In 880, Pope John VIII created an independent church region in Great Moravia. After King Svätopluk died in 894, his sons, Mojmír II and Svatopluk II, fought for control. This made the empire weaker.

Around 896, Hungarian tribes, who had been defeated by the Pechenegs, moved into the Pannonian Basin and started to take over the land. Mojmír II and Svätopluk II likely died fighting the Hungarians between 904 and 907. In three battles near Bratislava in 907, the Hungarians defeated the Bavarian armies. This year is usually seen as the end of the Great Moravian Empire.

Great Moravia left a lasting impact. The Glagolitic and later Cyrillic alphabets spread to other Slavic countries. Its way of organizing the state might have influenced the later Kingdom of Hungary.

High Middle Ages

Hungarians Settle (10th Century)

From 895 to 902, the Hungarians gradually took control of the Pannonian Basin. Even though some old writings say Great Moravia disappeared without a trace, archaeological finds show that Slavic people continued to live in the river valleys of the Carpathian Mountains.

The oldest Hungarian graves in Slovakia are from the late 9th and early 10th centuries. By 930-940, larger groups of Hungarians moved into southern Slovakia. They settled near older Slavic villages, sometimes even sharing cemeteries, as they changed from a nomadic lifestyle to a settled one. In the 11th century, the differences between Slavic and Hungarian graves disappeared.

In the northern parts of Slovakia, older Slavic settlements and local leaders continued to exist.

Principality of Nitra (11th Century)

Suggested borders of the Duchy of Nitra in the 11th century.

The future Kingdom of Hungary started to form under Grand Prince Géza (before 972–997). He expanded his rule over western Slovakia. His son, Stephen, became a strong Christian. Some say Stephen received the "Duchy of Nitra" from his father.

After Géza died, Stephen fought and defeated a pagan leader named Koppány. Stephen then became the first King of Hungary in 1000 or 1001.

King Stephen set up at least eight counties in what is now Slovakia, like Nitra and Zemplín. He also created church regions, with the Archdiocese of Esztergom covering much of Slovakia.

Around 1015, the Polish Duke Bolesław I of Poland took some parts of eastern Slovakia, but King Stephen got them back in 1018.

After King Stephen died, there were internal conflicts. In 1048, King Andrew I of Hungary gave one-third of his kingdom, called Tercia pars regni, to his brother, Duke Béla. This duchy was centered around Nitra. For the next 60 years, this part of the kingdom was ruled separately by members of the Árpád dynasty, though they accepted the king's power.

The Tercia pars regni ended in 1107 when King Coloman of Hungary took over its lands.

Mongol Invasion (1241–1242)

The Mongol invasion led to the building of strong stone castles like Spiš Castle.

In 1241, the Mongols invaded and destroyed parts of Hungary, including northwestern Slovakia. Trenčín Castle held strong, but nearby areas were ruined. The Mongols moved south, devastating regions along the Váh and Nitra rivers. Only strong castles and fortified towns could resist. Many people fled to the mountains. It's thought that at least a third of the population died from hunger and sickness.

After the Mongols left, the Duke of Austria invaded, but the Hungarian army, with help from soldiers from Trenčín and Nitra, pushed them back.

Growth of Counties and Towns

The royal administration in Slovakia grew between the 11th and 13th centuries. New counties were formed, and existing ones expanded. Kings also created "forest counties" in less populated areas.

Some towns in Slovakia received special rights even before the Mongol invasion, like Trnava (1238). After the Mongols left, King Béla IV ordered many castles to be built or strengthened, like Komárno and Zvolen. Towns became more important for both trade and defense.

Slovakia was rich in gold, silver, copper, iron, and salt. Mining grew, making some settlements powerful. These towns received special privileges from the kings. Early privileged towns included Spišské Vlachy (1243), Košice (before 1248), and Banská Štiavnica (1255).

People from other regions, like Walloons, Germans, Hungarians, and Slavs, moved into the less populated northern parts of Hungary. German settlers played a big role in developing towns, bringing new ways of production, laws, and culture.

By the end of the Middle Ages, Slovakia was one of the most urbanized parts of the Kingdom of Hungary. Many important towns were located here, and mining towns like Kremnica produced a lot of gold and silver, contributing significantly to the kingdom's economy.

Towns formed groups to protect their rights, such as the Community of Saxons of Spiš and the Lower Hungarian Mining Towns. The people in these towns were mostly German, followed by Slovaks and some Hungarians. Jewish communities also existed in some towns, but faced limitations.

Rule by Powerful Lords (1290–1321)

The late 13th century saw conflicts within the royal family and among the rich nobles. The king's power weakened, and some powerful aristocrats, called oligarchs, took control of large areas.

After the Mongol invasion, landowners competed to build castles. Nobles with castles gained more power over their neighbors. This led to about eight huge territories in the kingdom being ruled by powerful aristocrats in the 1290s.

In Slovakia, most castles were owned by two powerful lords: Amade Aba in the east and Matthew III Csák in the west. After the Árpád dynasty ended in 1301, these lords ruled their lands almost independently. Amade Aba was killed in Košice in 1311.

Matthew III Csák ruled western Slovakia from Trenčín. He fought against King Charles I of Hungary, who had become king. The king's armies defeated Matthew's allies in the Battle of Rozgony in 1312. However, Matthew kept his power until he died in 1321. After his death, the king easily took over his castles.

Bratislava county was ruled by the Dukes of Austria from 1301 to 1328, when King Charles I took it back.

Late Middle Ages (14th–15th Centuries)

King Charles I made the central government stronger after years of fighting the powerful lords. He made trade agreements in 1335 that boosted trade routes through Slovakia.

The king confirmed the special rights of the 24 "Saxon" towns in Spiš and gave town privileges to others. German citizens still dominated most towns. However, in 1381, King Louis I gave Slavs half the seats on the town council of Žilina, showing the growing importance of the Slavic population. Many towns, like Bratislava and Košice, became "free royal cities" and could send representatives to the kingdom's assemblies.

In the first half of the 14th century, the population grew in the northern parts of Slovakia, leading to new counties like Orava and Liptov. In 1412, King Sigismund gave 13 "Saxon" towns in Spiš to Poland as a pledge, and they remained under Polish rule until 1769.

By the 1320s, most of Slovakia's land was owned by the kings, but church leaders and noble families also held properties. King Sigismund (1387–1437) gave large areas to his supporters. One of his advisors, Stibor of Stiboricz, called himself "Lord of the whole Váh" because he owned 15 castles along the river.

After King Albert died in 1439, a civil war started. Queen Elisabeth hired Czech soldiers led by Jan Jiskra, who captured several towns in Slovakia. He held them until 1462 when he surrendered to King Matthias Corvinus.

Modern Era

Early Modern Period

Habsburg and Ottoman Rule

Description: This media shows the protected monument with the number 606-440/1 CHMSK/606-440/1,CHMSK/606-440(other) in the Slovak Republic.
Title: Fülek megvétele 1593-ban
Credit: Ortelius: Redivivus, Szalay-Baróti: A Magyar Nemzet Története [1]
Author: Abraham Ortelius
Usage Terms: Public domain
License: Public domain
Attribution Required?: No The Ottoman Empire conquered the central part of the Kingdom of Hungary, creating several Ottoman provinces. Transylvania became a state under Ottoman protection. This area was a base for many revolts against the Habsburg monarchy.

The remaining part of the Kingdom of Hungary, which included much of present-day Slovakia, resisted the Ottomans. This part became a province of the Habsburg monarchy and was known as "Royal Hungary".

Ferdinand I was chosen as king of Habsburg Hungary. After the Ottomans captured Buda in 1541, Bratislava (then called Pressburg) became the capital and coronation city of Habsburg Hungary from 1536 to 1784. Many Habsburg rulers were crowned kings and queens of Hungary in St. Martin's Cathedral in Bratislava.

For almost two centuries, Slovakia was a major battleground in the wars against the Ottoman Empire. The region suffered greatly, losing many lives and much property. Natural resources like gold and silver were used to pay for the wars. Some areas were even taxed twice, making life very hard for the people.

Parts of Slovakia were under direct Ottoman rule, becoming part of Ottoman provinces. In the late 17th century, a short-lived Ottoman-controlled principality was set up in eastern Slovakia.

After the Ottomans were pushed out of Buda in 1686, Buda (later Budapest) became the capital again. Despite living under Hungarian, Habsburg, and Ottoman rule for centuries, the Slovak people managed to keep their language and culture alive.

Late Modern Period

Slovak National Movement

In the 18th century, the Slovak National Movement began. It was inspired by the idea of Pan-slavism, which aimed to unite all Slavic peoples. This movement wanted to create a stronger sense of national identity among Slovaks. It grew in the 19th century, led mainly by Slovak religious leaders. However, the movement was divided, and Hungarian control remained strong after 1867. The official policy of magyarization tried to make everyone speak Hungarian, which limited the Slovak movement.

The first official version of the Slovak language was created by Anton Bernolák in the 1780s, based on a western Slovak dialect. Catholic thinkers supported it. However, Protestant thinkers continued to use a Slovakized version of Czech. Important figures like Ján Kollár and Pavel Jozef Šafárik believed in Pan-Slavic ideas, seeing Czechs and Slovaks as one nation.

In the 1840s, Protestants changed their minds when Ľudovít Štúr developed a standard language based on a central Slovak dialect. His followers emphasized that Slovaks were a separate nation with their own unique language. Štúr's version was finally accepted by both Catholics and Lutherans in 1847 and is the basis of modern Slovak.

Hungarian Revolution of 1848

A map of the northern part of Habsburg Hungary in 1850, showing two military districts in Slovakia.

During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, Slovak nationalist leaders supported the Austrians. They hoped this would help them separate from the Kingdom of Hungary and gain more freedom within the Austrian monarchy. The Slovak National Council even organized an uprising, called the Slovak Uprising, to gain autonomy. In September 1848, they briefly set up their own administration. However, the Austrian court later disbanded the Slovak troops. Still, thousands of volunteers from Slovakia, including many Slovaks, fought in the Hungarian Army.

After the Hungarian Revolution was defeated, the Austrian authorities punished Hungarian leaders. In 1850, the Kingdom of Hungary was divided into five military districts. Two of these had administrative centers in Slovakia: Bratislava and Košice.

The Austrian authorities ended these provinces in 1860. Slovak leaders used this time to promote their national goals. Martin became the main center of the Slovak National Movement. Important institutions like the Matica slovenská (a cultural association, 1863), the Slovak National Museum, and the Slovak National Party (1871) were founded there.

Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867

The Slovak movement faced a sudden setback after 1867. The Habsburg lands became the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Slovakia was part of the Hungarian half, where Hungarian leaders did not trust Slovaks because of their Pan-Slavism and desire for separation. Matica slovenská was closed down in 1875, and other Slovak institutions and schools suffered the same fate.

New signs of national and political life only appeared at the end of the 19th century. Slovaks realized they needed allies. In 1895, a meeting of oppressed peoples in Budapest alarmed the government. Slovaks received much help from the Czechs. In 1896, the idea of Czecho-Slovak Mutuality was created in Prague to strengthen cooperation and support Slovak separation from Hungary.

In the early 20th century, calls for universal suffrage (the right to vote for everyone) grew stronger. In Hungary, only 5% of people could vote. Slovaks saw this trend toward democracy as a chance to ease ethnic oppression and renew political activity.

The Slovak political groups split into different factions. Leaders of the Slovak National Party in Martin hoped the international situation would change in their favor. The Catholic group, led by Father Andrej Hlinka, focused on local efforts and formed the Slovak People's Party. The liberal thinkers, gathered around the journal Hlas ("Voice"), also sought Czecho-Slovak cooperation. An independent Social Democratic Party emerged in 1905.

A map of the federalization of Austria-Hungary planned by Archduke Franz Ferdinand, with Slovakia as one of the member states.

Slovaks achieved some success, like electing seven Slovaks to the Assembly in 1906 despite oppression. This alarmed the government, leading to increased efforts to make people speak Hungarian. The Apponyi Act, a new education law, required Hungarian to be taught in non-state elementary schools to receive state funding.

Ethnic tension grew when 15 Slovaks were killed during a riot at Černová near Ružomberok (see Černová tragedy). Local people wanted their popular priest, Andrej Hlinka, to consecrate their new church. But his bishop had suspended Hlinka because of his involvement in the national movement. The villagers tried to stop other priests from entering the village. Police shot 15 protesters. This incident drew international attention to the violation of minority rights in Hungary.

Before World War I, Archduke Franz Ferdinand planned to federalize the monarchy, which included the idea of Slovak autonomy. This plan was abandoned after his assassination, which triggered World War I.

Czechoslovakia

Creating Czechoslovakia

After World War I, the Slovak people decided to leave the Dual Monarchy and form an independent republic with the Czechs. This idea came from Slovaks living in other countries, especially in the United States.

The most important Slovak leader at this time was Milan Rastislav Štefánik. He was a French general and a key representative of the Czecho-Slovak National Council in Paris. He played a crucial role in making the Czecho-Slovak state happen. Slovak politicians at home also supported the work of Masaryk, Beneš, and Štefánik.

During the war, Hungarian authorities increased their pressure on Slovaks. But news of the efforts to create a Czech-Slovak state reached Slovakia and was met with great joy.

In the final year of World War I, protests happened in Slovakia. On October 28, 1918, the Prague National Committee declared an independent republic of Czechoslovakia. Two days later, the Slovak National Council in Martin agreed to this declaration. The new republic included the Czech lands, a small part of Silesia, Slovakia, and Subcarpathian Ruthenia. Prague became the capital.

In May–June 1919, the Hungarian Red Army attacked, pushing Czech troops out of central and eastern Slovakia. A short-lived Slovak Soviet Republic was set up in Prešov. However, the Hungarian army stopped its attack, and the troops were later withdrawn after other countries intervened.

Czechoslovakia in 1928.

The Treaty of Trianon in 1920 set the southern border of Czechoslovakia. It included some areas with mostly Hungarian speakers for strategic and economic reasons. According to the 1930 census, Slovakia had about 3.25 million people, with 68.4% Slovaks, 17.6% Hungarians, and smaller numbers of Germans, Czechs, and Rusyns.

First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938)

Slovaks were outnumbered by Czechs in the new state. Slovakia was more agricultural and less developed than the Czech lands. Most Slovaks were Catholic, while fewer Czechs followed traditional religions. Slovaks also had less education and experience with self-government. These differences, along with central control from Prague, caused some unhappiness among Slovaks.

Czechoslovakia was the only country in East-Central Europe that remained a parliamentary democracy between the two world wars. However, it still faced problems with minorities, especially the large German population. Many Slovak politicians wanted more autonomy for Slovakia. This movement for autonomy grew from the 1920s until Slovakia became independent in 1939.

Between the wars, the Czechoslovak government tried to industrialize Slovakia, but this was not very successful, partly due to the Great Depression. Slovak unhappiness over what they saw as Czech economic and political control led to more support for independence. Many Slovaks, including Father Andrej Hlinka and Jozef Tiso, called for equality between Czechs and Slovaks and greater autonomy for Slovakia.

Towards Slovak Autonomy (1938–1939)

Territorial losses in 1938–39.

In September 1938, the Munich Agreement forced Czechoslovakia to give the German-speaking Sudetenland region to Nazi Germany. In November, the First Vienna Award forced Czechoslovakia to give southern Slovakia, which had many Hungarian speakers, to Hungary.

On March 14, 1939, the Slovak Republic declared its independence. It became a state that was officially independent but controlled by Nazi Germany in its foreign policy and increasingly in its internal affairs. Jozef Tiso became Prime Minister and later President.

On March 15, Nazi Germany invaded the rest of the Czech lands, creating the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. On the same day, Carpatho-Ukraine declared independence, but Hungary immediately invaded and took it over. On March 23, Hungary also occupied some disputed parts of eastern Slovakia, leading to a brief conflict known as the Slovak-Hungarian War.

World War II

Tiso's independent Slovakia in 1941.

The Slovak Republic had a relatively peaceful start to World War II. As an Axis ally, Slovakia took part in the wars against Poland and the Soviet Union. Although its contribution to the German war effort was small, the number of Slovak troops (around 45,000 in the Soviet campaign) was significant for a country of 2.6 million people.

Soon after independence, the government of Jozef Tiso began taking actions against the 90,000 Jews in the country. The Hlinka Guard attacked Jews, and the "Jewish Code" was passed in September 1941. This code was similar to Germany's Nuremberg Laws. It forced Jews to wear a yellow armband and banned them from many jobs and from marrying non-Jews. More than 64,000 Jews lost their livelihoods. Between March and October 1942, about 57,000 Jews were sent to German-occupied Poland, where almost all of them were killed in Extermination camps. The Slovak Parliament later made these deportations legal. The deportations stopped for a while, but in 1944, after the Slovak National Uprising, German forces deported 12,600 more Jews. About half of them were killed in concentration camps. Other Jews were rounded up and killed in Slovakia by Slovak collaborators under German command. Around 10,000 Slovak Jews survived in Slovakia.

On August 29, 1944, 60,000 Slovak troops and 18,000 partisans (resistance fighters) rose up against the Nazis. This was known as the Slovak National Uprising. Slovakia was heavily damaged by the fierce German counter-attack and occupation. However, guerrilla warfare continued even after the organized resistance ended. Although the uprising was eventually put down by German forces, it was an important moment for the Slovak people. It allowed them to end the war as a nation that had helped the Allied victory.

Later in 1944, Soviet attacks increased. The Red Army, with help from Romanian troops, gradually pushed the German army out of Slovakia. On April 4, 1945, Soviet troops entered Bratislava, the capital.

Czechoslovakia After World War II

After World War II, Czechoslovakia was restored in 1945, but without Carpathian Ruthenia, which was given to the Soviet Union. The Beneš decrees led to the loss of rights and persecution of the Hungarian minority in southern Slovakia. The local German minority was expelled.

In 1946, elections were held. In Slovakia, the Democratic Party won, but the Czechoslovak Communist Party won in the Czech part. The Communists eventually took power in February 1948, making Czechoslovakia a satellite state of the Soviet Union.

For the next four decades, the country was under strict Communist control. There was a brief period of reform in 1968, known as the Prague Spring, when Alexander Dubček (a Slovak) became the Communist Party leader. Dubček wanted to create "socialism with a human face" with political, social, and economic reforms. Other Warsaw Pact governments worried that Dubček had gone too far. This led to the invasion and occupation of Czechoslovakia on August 21, 1968, by Soviet and other Warsaw Pact troops. Another Slovak, Gustáv Husák, replaced Dubček as party leader in April 1969.

Czechoslovakia 1969–1990.

The 1970s and 1980s were called the period of "normalization". During this time, those who supported the 1968 Soviet invasion stopped any opposition to their conservative government. Political, social, and economic life became stagnant. Because the reform movement was centered in Prague, Slovakia experienced "normalization" less harshly than the Czech lands. In fact, Slovakia saw relatively good economic growth in the 1970s and 1980s.

The 1970s also saw the rise of a dissident movement, especially in the Czech Republic. On January 1, 1977, over 250 human rights activists signed a document called Charter 77, which criticized the government for not respecting human rights.

Velvet Revolution (1989)

On November 17, 1989, public protests began, known as the "Velvet Revolution". These protests led to the end of Communist Party rule in Czechoslovakia. A temporary government was formed in December 1989, and the first free elections since 1948 took place in June 1990. In 1992, talks about a new federal constitution failed over the issue of Slovak autonomy. In late 1992, an agreement was reached to peacefully dissolve Czechoslovakia. On January 1, 1993, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic both peacefully declared their independence. Both new states were immediately recognized by the United States and European countries.

After the "Velvet Revolution," Charter 77 and other groups formed the Civic Forum, which aimed for government reform and civil liberties. Its leader, the playwright Václav Havel, was elected President of Czechoslovakia in December 1989. The Slovak group, Public Against Violence, shared similar goals.

In the June 1990 elections, Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won by a large margin. However, they found that while they were good at overthrowing the Communist government, they were less effective at governing. In the 1992 elections, new parties replaced them.

Contemporary Period

Independent Slovakia

A map of modern Slovakia.

In the election in June 1992, Václav Klaus's party won in Czechia, focusing on economic reform. In Slovakia, Vladimír Mečiar's Movement for a Democratic Slovakia (HZDS) became the leading party, advocating for Slovak autonomy. Mečiar and Klaus negotiated the agreement to divide Czechoslovakia. Mečiar's party, HZDS, governed Slovakia for most of its first five years as an independent state, except for a nine-month period in 1994.

The first president of independent Slovakia, Michal Kováč, promised to make Slovakia "the Switzerland of Eastern Europe." Mečiar, who had been prime minister of the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia since 1992, became the first prime minister of independent Slovakia.

Rudolf Schuster won the presidential election in May 1999. Mečiar's government was accused of not following democratic rules. After the 1998 parliamentary elections, a new government led by Mikuláš Dzurinda took over.

Dzurinda's first government made many political and economic reforms. These reforms helped Slovakia join the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and become a strong candidate for joining the European Union (EU) and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). However, the popularity of the ruling parties dropped. Mečiar remained the leader of HZDS, which continued to have significant support.

In the September 2002 parliamentary election, Prime Minister Dzurinda's party, Slovak Democratic and Christian Union (SDKÚ), gained enough support to form a second government. He formed a coalition with three other center-right parties. This government had a small majority in parliament. Dzurinda's Second Cabinet (2002–2006) announced strong support for NATO and EU integration and promised to continue democratic and free-market reforms.

The new government's main goals were to get invitations to NATO and the EU, attract foreign investment, and reform social services like healthcare. Mečiar's party went into opposition again.

Slovakia faced more challenges than the Czech Republic in developing a modern market economy. Slovakia joined NATO on March 29, 2004, and the EU on May 1, 2004. On October 10, 2005, Slovakia was elected for the first time to a two-year term on the UN Security Council.

The next election was on June 17, 2006. The leftist Smer party won the most votes and formed a coalition government. Their opposition included the former ruling parties.

Massive anti-government rally in Bratislava, March 9, 2018.

The election in June 2010 was won by Smer, but its leader, Fico, could not form a government. So, a coalition of other parties took over, with Iveta Radičová becoming Slovakia's first woman prime minister. This government fell after a vote related to the European Financial Stability Fund.

Smer won the election in 2012 with a large majority. Fico formed his Second Cabinet, a single-party government. It supported the EU's position during the Russian invasion of Ukraine but sometimes questioned the effectiveness of EU sanctions against Russia. In autumn 2015, during the European migrant crisis, the leaders of the four Visegrád Group states rejected the EU's proposal to reallocate refugees. The election in 2016 led to Fico forming his Third Cabinet, a coalition of four parties.

Fico resigned as prime minister in March 2018 after large street protests. These protests followed the murder of Ján Kuciak, an investigative journalist who was looking into high-level political corruption. President Andrej Kiska appointed Peter Pellegrini to replace Fico as prime minister.

In March 2019, Zuzana Čaputová was elected as the first female president of Slovakia. She was a member of the liberal Progressive Slovakia party.

After the 2020 Slovak parliamentary election, the Ordinary People and Independent Personalities party won, and Igor Matovič became prime minister in March 2020. In April 2021, Eduard Heger became prime minister after Matovič resigned. Heger was a close ally of Matovič. In May 2023, Heger resigned, and Ľudovít Ódor, a central bank official, became caretaker prime minister of a government of experts.

In September 2023, the populist left-wing Smer-SSD party, led by former prime minister Robert Fico, won the general election. They formed a coalition government with their allies. On October 25, 2023, Robert Fico became prime minister again. He announced that the new government would stop Slovakia's military aid to Ukraine and would not support further sanctions against Russia. In April 2024, Peter Pellegrini, a close ally of Fico, won the presidential election.