History of Nigeria facts for kids
The history of Nigeria goes back a very long time, with the earliest people living there at least 13,000 years ago. Ancient groups like the Nok culture started around 1500 BC. Many old African kingdoms grew in the area we now call Nigeria. These included the Kingdom of Nri, the Benin Empire, and the Oyo Empire. Other important kingdoms were the Ife Empire and the Kingdom of Warri.
Islam arrived in Nigeria through the Bornu Empire in the 11th century (around 1068 AD) and the Hausa States around 1385 AD. Christianity came later, in the 15th century. Augustinian and Capuchin monks from Portugal brought it to the Kingdom of Warri. The Songhai Empire also controlled parts of this region.
Starting in the 15th century, European slave traders came to buy enslaved Africans. This was part of the Atlantic slave trade. Badagry, a coastal port, was one of the first Nigerian ports used by these traders. Local merchants sold people to them, which made conflicts worse among the different groups in the region. It also changed old trade routes that went across the Sahara Desert.
Lagos was taken over by British forces in 1851 and officially became part of Britain in 1865. Nigeria became a British protectorate in 1901. British rule lasted until 1960, when Nigeria gained its independence. Nigeria first became a republic in 1963. However, it soon came under military rule after a violent military takeover in 1966.
A group wanting to separate formed the Republic of Biafra in 1967. This led to the three-year Nigerian Civil War. Nigeria became a republic again in 1979 after a new constitution was written. But this republic did not last long. The military took power again in 1983 and ruled for ten more years. A new republic was planned for 1993 but was stopped by General Sani Abacha. Abacha died in 1998, and a fourth republic was set up the next year. This ended about thirty years of military rule that came and went.
Contents
- Ancient Times in Nigeria
- Early Kingdoms Before 1500
- Northern Kingdoms of the Sahel
- Kanem–Bornu Empire
- Hausa Kingdoms
- Yoruba People
- Igbo Kingdoms
- Akwa Akpa (Calabar)
- British Rule in Nigeria
- Independence and First Republic
- First Republic and Military Rule
- Second Republic
- The Aborted Third Republic
- Fourth Republic
- Democracy Day
Ancient Times in Nigeria
Archaeologists have found a long history of people living in Nigeria. Research by Charles Thurstan Shaw showed this. Digs in Ugwuele, Afikpo, and Nsukka prove that people lived there as early as 6,000 BC. Shaw's work at Igbo-Ukwu found a culture from the 9th century. These people made amazing bronze metalwork. They did this on their own, without help from Arab or European influences. This was centuries before other famous sites were known.
The oldest human skeleton fossil found in West Africa is 13,000 years old. It was found at Iwo-Eleru in western Nigeria. This shows how long people have lived in the area.
The Dufuna canoe was found in 1987 near the Komadugu Gana River in Yobe State. Tests show the canoe is 8,000 to 8,500 years old. It is the oldest boat found in Africa and the second oldest in the world.
People in the Neolithic age used stone axe heads. They brought these from the north to clear forests for farming. The Yoruba people who came after them believed these axes were "thunderbolts" thrown by the gods.
Nok Culture and Early Iron Age
The Nok culture was very active from about 1500 BC to 200 AD. They lived on the Jos Plateau in northern and central Nigeria. They made life-sized terracotta statues of human heads, figures, and animals.
Iron smelting furnaces at Taruga, a Nok site, date back to around 600 BC. The Nok culture likely started smelting iron by 600-500 BC, or even earlier. Digs at Kainji Dam showed iron working by the 2nd century BC. Iron smelting evidence was also found in the Nsukka area of southeast Nigeria. This was in what is now Igboland. It dates to 2000 BC at Lejja and 750 BC at Opi.
It seems that people in this area learned to work with iron on their own. They did not need to make bronze first. Some think the technology came from the Nile Valley. But iron use in the Niger River valley seems to be older than in the upper savanna. Some archaeologists believe iron working likely started independently in West Africa.
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Nok seated figure; 5th century BC – 5th century AD; terracotta; 38 cm (1 ft. 3 in.); Musée du quai Branly (Paris). This Nok figure has a head much larger than its body. It shows elegant details and a strong focus. The chin has a neat bump that looks like a beard. Necklaces form a cone around the neck, drawing attention to the face.
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Nok artwork; 5th century BC – 5th century AD; length: 50 cm (19.6 in.), height: 54 cm (21.2 in.), width: 50 cm (19.6 in.); terracotta; Musée du quai Branly. Like most African art, Nok art mostly shows people, rarely animals. All Nok statues are very stylish. They have arched eyebrows, triangular eyes, and pupils that are holes.
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Nok male head; 550-50 BC; terracotta; Brooklyn Museum (New York City, USA). The mouth of this head is slightly open. This might mean it is speaking or has something to say. The eyes and eyebrows suggest a calm or peaceful feeling.
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Nok male figure; terracotta; Detroit Institute of Art (Michigan, USA)
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Early Kingdoms Before 1500
Many early independent kingdoms and states formed what is now Nigeria. These include:
- Benin Kingdom
- Borgu Kingdom
- Fulani Empire
- Hausa Kingdoms
- Kanem Bornu Empire
- Kwararafa Kingdom
- Ibibio Kingdom
- Nri Kingdom
- Nupe Kingdom
- Oyo Empire
- Songhai Empire
- Warri Kingdom
- Ile Ife Kingdom
- Yagba East Kingdom
Oyo and Benin Empires
In the 15th century, the Oyo and Benin kingdoms became more powerful than Ife. Ife remained an important religious center. The oni of Ife was respected for his religious role. This was key to the growth of Yoruba culture.
Oyo copied Ife's government style. A ruler from Oyo's royal family controlled several smaller city-states. A council called the Oyo Mesi chose the Alaafin (king). This council also kept the king's power in check. Their capital city was about 100 km north of modern-day Oyo. Unlike other Yoruba kingdoms in forests, Oyo was in the savanna. Its military strength came from its horse soldiers. These forces took control of the nearby Nupe and Borgu kingdoms. This helped them create trade routes further north.
The Benin Empire (1440–1897) was an old African state in what is now Nigeria. People living there called it Bini. It is not the same as the modern country called Benin.
The Igala are a group in Nigeria. Their old homeland, the Igala Kingdom, is a triangle-shaped area of about 14,000 square kilometers (5,400 sq mi). It is located where the Benue and Niger rivers meet. This area is now part of Kogi State. Their capital is Idah. Igala people are mostly found in Kogi state. They also live in Anambra, Delta, and Benue states.
Savanna States
In the 16th century, the Songhai Empire was at its strongest. It stretched from the Senegal and Gambia rivers and included parts of Hausaland in the east. At the same time, the Saifawa Dynasty of Borno took over Kanem. They also extended their control west to Hausa cities not under Songhai rule.
Because of Songhai's influence, Islamic learning and culture grew. Songhai fell in 1591 when an army from Morocco took over Gao and Timbuktu. Morocco could not control the empire, so its parts, including the Hausa states, became independent. Songhai's fall changed the history of the region.
Borno was strongest under mai Idris Aloma (around 1569–1600). During his rule, Kanem was taken back. With Songhai gone, Borno was the main power until the 18th century. It ruled northern Nigeria. But Borno's power slowly weakened. It could not stop fights between rival Hausa cities. Also, the Tuareg from Agades attacked Borno's northern areas.
A big reason for Borno's decline was a severe drought in the mid-18th century. This drought affected the Sahel and savanna. Borno lost many northern lands to the Tuareg, who could move more easily during the famine. Borno got some strength back later, but another drought in the 1790s weakened it again.
These tough times led to the jihad (holy war) of Usman dan Fodio. The Hausa states' military fights used up resources. At the same time, drought and famine hurt farmers and herders. Many Fulani people moved into Hausaland and Borno. Their arrival caused more tension because they did not feel loyal to the local rulers. The rulers saw them as a way to get more taxes. By the late 18th century, some Muslim scholars started speaking out about the common people's problems. Efforts to stop these religious leaders only made tensions worse, setting the stage for the jihad.
Slavery was a common practice in many parts of Africa at this time. It was used a lot in farming.
Northern Kingdoms of the Sahel
Trade was key to the growth of organized communities in the sahel parts of Nigeria. Early people spread out as the Sahara desert grew larger around 3000 BC. Trans-Saharan trade routes connected the western Sudan with the Mediterranean since the time of Carthage. These routes also linked to the Upper Nile much earlier. They created ways for ideas and cultures to spread until the late 19th century. Through these same routes, Islam came south into West Africa after the 9th century.
By then, a line of ruling states, including the first Hausa Kingdoms, stretched into western and central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were Ghana, Gao, and Kanem. These were not inside modern Nigeria but influenced its savanna history. Ghana declined in the 11th century. It was followed by the Mali Empire, which brought much of western Sudan together in the 13th century.
After Mali broke up, a local leader named Sonni Ali (1464–1492) started the Songhai Empire. This was in the middle Niger and western Sudan region. He took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali captured Timbuktu in 1468 and Djenné in 1473. He built his rule on trade money and the help of Muslim merchants. His successor, Askia Muhammad Ture (1493–1528), made Islam the official religion. He built mosques and brought Muslim scholars to Gao.
These western empires did not have much political power in the Nigerian savanna before 1500. But they had a strong cultural and economic effect. This became even clearer in the 16th century. These states were linked to the spread of Islam and trade. Throughout the 16th century, much of northern Nigeria paid respect to Songhai in the west or to Borno, a rival empire in the east.
The Golden Age of Trade
From the 14th to 16th centuries, the demand for gold grew. European and Islamic countries wanted to use gold for their money. This led to more trade across the Sahara Desert.
Kanem–Bornu Empire
The history of Borno is closely tied to Kanem. Kanem had become a large empire in the Lake Chad basin by the 13th century. Kanem grew westward to include the area that became Borno. The mai (king) of Kanem and his court accepted Islam in the 11th century. This was similar to what the western empires had done. Islam was used to strengthen the state's political and social systems. However, many old customs were kept. For example, women continued to have a lot of political power.
The mai used his horse guards and an army of nobles to spread Kanem's power into Borno. Traditionally, the heir to the throne would govern this territory while learning. But in the 14th century, family conflicts forced the ruling group to move to Borno. Because of this, the Kanuri people became a distinct group in the late 14th and 15th centuries. The civil war in Kanem in the late 14th century led to Borno becoming independent.
Borno's wealth came from the trans-Sudanic slave trade and desert trade in salt and livestock. To protect its trade, Borno had to get involved in Kanem. Kanem remained a war zone throughout the 15th and into the 16th centuries. Even though Borno was politically weaker then, its court and mosques became famous. They were centers of Islamic culture and learning, supported by a line of scholarly kings.
Hausa Kingdoms
The Hausa Kingdoms were a group of states started by the Hausa people. They were located between the Niger River and Lake Chad. Their history is told in the Bayajidda legend. This story describes the adventures of Bayajidda, a hero from Baghdad. He killed a snake in the well of Daura and married the local queen, Daurama. The hero had a child with the queen, Bawo. He also had another child with the queen's maid-servant, Karbagari. Today, the Hausa people live in the northern part of Nigeria.
Sarki Mythology
The Bayajidda legend says the Hausa states were founded by Bayajidda's sons. Bayajidda's origin story changes depending on the tradition. But the official story says he married the last queen of Daura, Kabara. This marked the end of the female rulers who had led the Hausa people before. Modern historians see this legend as a story that likely refers to a big event, like a change in ruling families.
Banza Bakwai (Bastard Seven)
According to the Bayajidda legend, the Banza Bakwai states were founded by the seven sons of Karbagari. Karbagari was the son of Bayajidda and the slave-maid, Bagwariya. They are called the Banza Bakwai, meaning "Bastard" or "Bogus Seven." This is because their mother was a slave.
These states included:
- Zamfara (where Hausa is spoken)
- Kebbi (where Hausa is spoken)
- Yauri (also called Yawuri)
- Gwari (also called Gwariland)
- Kwararafa (the state of the Jukun people)
- Nupe (state of the Nupe people)
- Ilorin (founded by the Yoruba)
Hausa Bakwai (True Seven)
The Hausa Kingdoms began as seven states. The Bayajidda legend says they were founded by the six sons of Bawo. Bawo was the son of the hero and Queen Magajiya Daurama. The hero's son, Biram or Ibrahim, from an earlier marriage, also founded a state. These states were only kingdoms where Hausa was spoken:
From the start of Hausa history, these seven states shared out work based on their location and resources. Kano and Rano were known for indigo dye. Cotton grew well in their plains. They became the main producers of cloth, weaving and dyeing it. Then they sent it by caravans to other Hausa states and beyond. Biram was the first seat of government. Zaria provided workers and was known for slaves. Katsina and Daura were "Chiefs of the Market." Their location gave them direct access to caravans from the north. Gobir, in the west, was the "Chief of War." It was mainly responsible for protecting the empire from Ghana and Songhai.
Islam came to Hausaland along the trade routes. The famous Kano Chronicle tells how Kano's ruling family became Muslim. This shows that Mali's empire influenced areas far to the east. Becoming Muslim was slow, and many people in the countryside still followed old local religions. But Kano and Katsina, with their famous mosques and schools, became important centers of Islamic culture and learning.
The Fulani people started coming into Hausa country in the 13th century. By the 15th century, they were raising cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno too. The Fulani came from the Senegal River valley. Their ancestors had a way of moving livestock between pastures. They slowly moved east, first into the Mali and Songhai empires, and then into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulani became Muslim as early as the 11th century. They settled among the Hausa and became hard to tell apart from them. They became a very religious, educated group. They were very important to the Hausa kings as government advisors, Islamic judges, and teachers.
Zenith of Hausa Kingdoms
The Hausa Kingdoms were first mentioned in the 9th century. By the 15th century, they were busy trading centers. They competed with Kanem–Bornu and the Mali Empire. Their main exports were slaves, leather, gold, cloth, salt, kola nuts, and henna.
At different times, the Hausa managed to unite their states. But this unity never lasted long. In the 11th century, conquests by Gijimasu of Kano led to the first united Hausa Nation. This was under Queen Amina, the Sultana of Zazzau. But strong rivalries between the states led to times when bigger powers like Songhai, Kanem, and the Fulani ruled them.
Fall of Hausa Kingdoms
Even with steady growth, the Hausa states were open to attacks. Most of their people were Muslim by the 16th century. But they were attacked by Fulani jihadists from 1804 to 1808. In 1808, the Hausa Nation was finally conquered by Usuman dan Fodio. It became part of the Hausa-Fulani Sokoto Caliphate.
Yoruba People
Historically, the Yoruba people were the main group on the west side of the Niger River. Their closest language relatives are the Igala. The Igala live on the other side of where the Niger and Benue rivers split. It is thought they separated about 2,000 years ago.
The Yoruba people lived in mostly father-line groups in village communities. They grew crops for food. Around the 8th century, nearby village areas called ilé joined together. They formed many territorial city-states. In these states, loyalty to the clan became less important than loyalty to the ruling chiefs. Cities grew, and people made amazing art. This included terracotta and ivory sculptures. They also made complex metal castings at Ife.
The Yoruba are especially known for the Oyo Empire. This empire ruled over other Yoruba nations like the Egba Kingdom, Awori Kingdom, and the Egbado. When it was strongest, it also ruled the Kingdom of Dahomey (now in the modern country of Benin).
The Yoruba worship many gods, called Orisha, and a Supreme Deity, Olorun. Olorun is now called God in the Yoruba language. There are 400 Orisha who do different tasks. According to the Yoruba, Oduduwa is seen as the ancestor of the Yoruba kings. One story says he founded Ife. He then sent his sons and daughters to start similar kingdoms in other parts of what is now Yorubaland. Yorubaland now includes different groups from states in the Southwestern part of the country. These states include Lagos State, Oyo State, Ondo State, Osun State, Ekiti State, and Ogun State.
Igbo Kingdoms
Nri Kingdom
The Kingdom of Nri is seen as the start of Igbo culture. It is also the oldest kingdom in Nigeria. Nri and Aguleri are where the Igbo creation myth comes from. These areas are in the land of the Umueri clan. This clan traces its family back to the male king-figure, Eri. Eri's origins are not clear. He has been called a "sky being" sent by Chukwu (God). He is said to have first brought order to the people of Anambra.
Archaeological finds suggest that Nri's power in Igboland might go back to the 9th century. Royal burials have been found from at least the 10th century. Eri, the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled there around 948 AD. Other related Igbo cultures followed in the 13th century. The first Eze Nri (King of Nri), Ìfikuánim, came right after him. Igbo oral stories say his rule started in 1043. But one historian places Ìfikuánim's rule much later, around 1225.
The Kingdom of Nri was a religious state, a kind of theocratic state. It grew in the central part of the Igbo region. The Nri had a special system of taboos. These included rules about humans (like the birth of twins), animals (like killing pythons), objects, time, behavior, speech, and places. These taboo rules were used to teach and govern Nri's people. This meant that all followers of the Igbo religion had to follow the faith's rules. They also had to obey its representative on Earth, the Eze Nri.
Decline of Nri Kingdom
As the Nri kingdom declined from the 15th to 17th centuries, other states grew strong. These states had once been under Nri's influence. They became powerful economic and religious centers. They also became large trading states that ruled Igboland.
The nearby Awka city-state grew powerful because of its strong Agbala oracle and metalworking skills. The Onitsha Kingdom was founded in the 16th century by people who moved from Anioma (Western Igboland). Later, groups like the Igala traders settled in Onitsha in the 18th century. Kingdoms west of the Niger River, like Aboh, controlled trade along the lower Niger River from the 17th century. This lasted until Europeans explored the Niger delta. The Umunoha state in the Owerri area used the Igwe ka Ala oracle to its advantage. However, the Cross River Igbo state like the Aro had the most influence in Igboland after Nri's decline.
The Arochukwu kingdom appeared after the Aro-Ibibio Wars (1630 to 1720). It then formed the Aro Confederacy. This group became very powerful economically in Eastern Nigeria. The Aro Confederacy's economic power came from the religious court of Ibini Ukpabi ("Long Juju"). They also had strong military allies like Ohafia, Abam, Ezza, and other nearby states. The Abiriba and Aro people are brothers. Their journey started from the Ekpa Kingdom, east of Cross River. They crossed the river to Urupkam (Usukpam) west of the Cross River. There, they founded two settlements: Ena Uda and Ena Ofia in today's Erai. Aro and Abiriba worked together to become a strong economic force.
Igbo gods, like those of the Yoruba, were many. But their relationships with each other and with humans were mostly equal. This reflected Igbo society as a whole. Many oracles and local religious groups attracted followers. The main goddess, the earth mother and fertility figure Ala, was worshipped at shrines throughout Igboland.
A common idea that Igbos had no central state is weak. This is because there is little historical proof of pre-colonial Igbo society. There is a big gap between the archaeological finds of Igbo Ukwu (showing a rich culture in the 8th century) and oral stories from the 20th century. Benin had a lot of influence on the western Igbo. They adopted many political systems similar to the Yoruba-Benin region. But Asaba and its close neighbors, like Ibusa, Ogwashi-Ukwu, Okpanam, Issele-Azagba, and Issele-Ukwu, were much closer to the Kingdom of Nri. Ofega was the queen for the Onitsha Igbo.
Akwa Akpa (Calabar)
The modern city of Calabar was founded in 1786 by Efik families. They had left Creek Town, further up the Calabar river. They settled on the east bank, where they could control trade with European ships. They quickly became the most powerful group in the region. This area stretched from Calabar down to Bakkasi in the East and Oron Nation in the West.
Akwa Akpa (called Calabar by the Spanish) became a major center for the Atlantic slave trade. Enslaved Africans were sold there for European goods. Most of the enslaved Africans sold from Calabar were Igbo people. This was true even though they were a minority among the local groups. From 1725 to 1750, about 17,000 enslaved Africans were sold from Calabar to European traders. From 1772 to 1775, this number jumped to over 62,000.
After the slave trade was stopped, palm oil and palm kernels became the main exports. The chiefs of Akwa Akpa asked for British protection in 1884. From 1884 to 1906, Old Calabar was the main office of the Niger Coast Protectorate. After that, Lagos became the main center.
Now called Calabar, the city remained an important port. It shipped ivory, timber, beeswax, and palm products. This lasted until 1916, when a railway opened in Port Harcourt, 145 km to the west.
British Rule in Nigeria
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After the Napoleonic Wars, the British increased trade with Nigeria's interior. In 1885, other countries agreed to Britain's claims in West Africa. The next year, the Royal Niger Company was given a special permission to trade. Sir George Taubman Goldie led this company.
On December 31, 1899, the British government took back the permission from the Royal Niger Company. They paid the company £865,000 as payment. All the land of the Royal Niger Company then belonged to the British government. On January 1, 1900, the British Empire created the Southern Nigeria Protectorate and the Northern Nigeria Protectorate.
In 1914, these areas were officially joined to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. For administration, Nigeria was still split into Northern and Southern Provinces and Lagos Colony. Modern education and economy grew faster in the south than in the north. This has affected Nigeria's political life ever since.
After World War II, Nigerians wanted independence. The British government created new constitutions. These slowly moved Nigeria towards self-rule and a more federal system. On October 1, 1954, the colony became the independent Federation of Nigeria. By the mid-20th century, many African countries were gaining independence. On October 27, 1958, Britain agreed that Nigeria would become an independent state on October 1, 1960.
Independence and First Republic
The Federation of Nigeria became fully independent on October 1, 1960. Its constitution set up a parliamentary government. It also gave a lot of self-rule to the country's three regions. From 1959 to 1960, Jaja Wachuku was the first Nigerian Speaker of the Parliament. He took over from Sir Frederick Metcalfe of Britain. Jaja Wachuku received Nigeria's official independence document, the Freedom Charter, on October 1, 1960. He received it from Princess Alexandra of Kent, who represented Queen Elizabeth II. Queen Elizabeth II was still Nigeria's monarch and head of state. Nigeria was also a member of the British Commonwealth of Nations.
The federal government had special powers over defense, foreign relations, and trade. The monarch of Nigeria was still head of state. But laws were made by a two-house parliament. The prime minister and cabinet had executive power. The Federal Supreme Court had judicial power.
However, political parties often represented the three main ethnic groups. The Northern People's Congress (NPC) represented conservative, Muslim, mostly Hausa and Fulani interests. This party controlled the northern region, which was three-quarters of the land and more than half of Nigeria's population. So, the North led the federal government from the start of independence. In the 1959 elections before independence, the NPC won 134 out of 312 seats in parliament.
The second-largest party was the National Council of Nigerian Citizens (NCNC). It won 89 seats. The NCNC represented the interests of the Igbo and Christian people in the Eastern Region. The Action Group (AG) was a left-leaning party. It represented the interests of the Yoruba people in the West. In the 1959 elections, the AG got 73 seats.
The first government after independence was formed by an alliance of the NCNC and the NPC. Many expected Ahmadu Bello, the strong leader of the North, to become Prime Minister. But Bello chose to stay as premier of the North and leader of the NPC. He picked Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, a Hausa, to be Nigeria's first Prime Minister.
The AG, led by Chief Obafemi Awolowo, became the opposition. But in 1962, a group within the AG, led by Ladoke Akintola, caused problems. Akintola was the premier of the West. His group argued that the Yoruba people were losing their top position in business to the Igbo. This was because the Igbo-led NCNC was part of the government, and the AG was not. Prime Minister Balewa agreed with Akintola and wanted the AG to join the government. But the AG leadership under Awolowo disagreed. They replaced Akintola as premier of the West with one of their own supporters.
When the Western Region parliament met to approve this change, Akintola's supporters started a riot. Fighting broke out. Chairs were thrown, and one member used the parliamentary Mace as a weapon. Police had to use tear gas to stop the riot. Similar problems happened in later attempts to restart the parliament. Unrest continued in the West. This added to the region's reputation for violence and unfair elections. Prime Minister Balewa declared martial law in the Western Region. He arrested Awolowo and others, charging them with treason. Akintola was then put in charge of a new government in the Western Region. So, the AG lost power in its own strong area.
First Republic and Military Rule
In October 1963, Nigeria became the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Former Governor-General Nnamdi Azikiwe became the country's first President. From the start, Nigeria's ethnic and religious differences caused problems. The south was more developed economically and educationally than the north. The AG party lost control of the Western Region. A new pro-government Yoruba party, the Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP), took over. Soon after, the AG opposition leader, Chief Obafemi Awolowo, was jailed.
The 1965 national election led to big political changes and a disputed result. This set the country on the path to civil war. The powerful northern NPC joined with the new Yoruba NNDP. The Igbo NCNC then joined with the remaining AG members. There were many claims of election fraud. Riots broke out in the Yoruba West. People there found that pro-government NNDP representatives had supposedly won, even in AG strongholds.
First Period of Military Rule
On January 15, 1966, a group of army officers, mostly Igbo from the southeast, overthrew the government. They killed the prime minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions. However, this coup was very bloody. So, General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi carried out another coup. The original officers went into hiding. Major Emmanuel Ifeajuna fled to Ghana. Some of the officers were arrested by Ironsi's government. Among the Igbo people, these detainees were seen as heroes. But in the Northern Region, Hausa and Fulani people demanded they be tried for murder.
The military government under General Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi could not calm ethnic tensions. It also could not create a constitution that everyone accepted. A big problem for Ironsi's government was Decree No. 34. This decree tried to unite the nation by getting rid of the federal structure. Nigeria had been organized this way since independence. Riots broke out in the North. Ironsi's efforts to end the federal system and rename the country the Republic of Nigeria on May 24, 1966, increased tensions. This led to another coup by mostly northern officers in July 1966. This coup brought Major General Yakubu Gowon to power. The name Federal Republic of Nigeria was brought back on August 31, 1966.
However, the killing of thousands of Igbo people in the north followed. This caused hundreds of thousands of Igbo to return to the southeast. There, strong feelings for Igbo separation grew. To give more power to minority groups, the military divided the four regions into 12 states. But the Igbo rejected changes to the constitution. They insisted on full independence for the east.
On May 29, 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu declared the eastern region independent as the Republic of Biafra. This happened on May 30, 1967. The Nigerian Civil War that followed caused an estimated 3.5 million deaths, mostly starving children. The war ended in 1970 with Gowon's famous speech: "No victor, no vanquished."
After the civil war, Nigeria focused on rebuilding its economy. U.S. intelligence in November 1970 noted that the war ended with little anger. Igbo people were accepted in many parts of Nigeria. But not in some areas of former Biafra where they were once dominant. Iboland was overpopulated and poor. High unemployment was expected to continue for many years.
U.S. analysts said Nigeria was still a "tribal society." Local and tribal loyalties were stronger than national ones. General Yakubu Gowon, head of the Federal Military Government (FMG), was the accepted national leader. His popularity grew after the war. The FMG was not very efficient. But its plan to stay in power for six more years met little opposition. The Nigerian Army, much larger after the war, supported the FMG but also threatened it. Troops were poorly trained, and some officers were plotting. Analysts thought Gowon would struggle to stay in office until power was handed to civilians. His sudden removal would make Nigeria less stable.
Nigeria's economy was better than expected after the war. Problems existed with rising prices, national debt, and a huge military budget. These competed with public demands for government services. The oil industry grew faster than expected. Oil money helped pay for military and social services. Nigeria emerged from the war with national pride and an anti-foreign feeling. It wanted to play a bigger role in African and world affairs. British cultural influence was strong, but its political influence was dropping. The Soviet Union benefited from Nigeria's thanks for its war help. Nigerian relations with the US improved.
Oil price increases in 1973–74 dramatically raised Nigeria's income. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala Mohammed and other officers staged a peaceful coup. They accused Gen. Yakubu Gowon of corruption and delaying the return to civilian rule. General Mohammed fired thousands of government workers. He announced a plan for civilian rule to return by October 1, 1979. He was killed on February 13, 1976, in a failed coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head of state.
Second Republic
A group was chosen in 1977 to write a new constitution. It was released on September 21, 1978. At that time, political activities were allowed again. In 1979, five political parties competed in elections. Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) was elected president. All five parties won seats in the National Assembly.
In the 1950s, before independence, oil was found off Nigeria's coast. Oil money quickly made Nigeria a wealthy nation. Oil prices jumped from $3 to $12 per barrel after the Yom Kippur War in 1973. This brought a sudden rush of money to Nigeria. Another sudden rise in oil prices to $19 per barrel happened in 1979. This was due to the start of the Iran–Iraq War. By 1979, Nigeria was the sixth-largest oil producer in the world. It earned $24 billion per year from oil.
In 1982, the ruling National Party of Nigeria (NPN) hoped to stay in power. They used favors and controlled the Federal Election Commission. In August 1983, Shagari and the NPN won again by a lot. They got most seats in the National Assembly and controlled 12 state governments. But the elections had violence and claims of widespread voter fraud. This included missing results, polling places not opening, and clear rigging of results. There was a big legal fight over the results.
On December 31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Major General Muhammadu Buhari became the leader of the Supreme Military Council (SMC). This was the country's new ruling body. The Buhari government was peacefully overthrown by General Ibrahim Babangida in August 1985. Babangida said he took over because of power misuse, human rights violations by SMC officers, and the government's failure to fix the economy.
In his first days, President Babangida allowed more press freedom. He also released political prisoners held without charges. As part of a 15-month economic plan, he cut pay for the military, police, government workers, and private sector. President Babangida wanted people to help make decisions. He started a national discussion on economic reforms. Public response showed strong opposition to an economic recession.
The Aborted Third Republic
Head of State Babangida promised to return the country to civilian rule by 1990. This date was later moved to January 1993. In early 1989, a group finished writing a constitution. In spring 1989, political activities were allowed again. In October 1989, the government created two parties: the National Republican Convention (NRC) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP). Other parties were not allowed.
In April 1990, some military officers tried to overthrow the government but failed. 69 people accused of plotting were killed after secret trials. In December 1990, the first local government elections were held. Even with low voter turnout, there was no violence. Both parties showed strength across the country. The SDP won control of most local government councils.
In December 1991, state elections were held. Babangida said that politicians who were banned before could run in primaries in August. These were canceled because of fraud. Later primaries in September were also canceled. All announced candidates were disqualified from running for president. A new election plan was chosen. The presidential election finally happened on June 12, 1993. The new president was supposed to start on August 27, 1993. This was the eighth anniversary of President Babangida taking power.
In the historic June 12, 1993, presidential elections, most observers said it was Nigeria's fairest. Early results showed that rich Yoruba businessman M. K. O. Abiola won clearly. But on June 23, Babangida canceled the election. He used several lawsuits as an excuse. This caused chaos in Nigeria. More than 100 people died in riots. Babangida then agreed to hand over power to a temporary government on August 27, 1993. He later tried to go back on this decision. But without public and military support, he had to hand over to Ernest Shonekan. Shonekan was a well-known businessman who was not part of any party. Shonekan was to rule until elections in February 1994. He had led Babangida's council since 1993. But Shonekan could not fix Nigeria's economic problems or calm political tensions.
Sani Abacha's Rule
The country was falling into chaos. Defense Minister Sani Abacha took power and forced Shonekan to resign on November 17, 1993. Abacha ended all democratic groups. He replaced elected governors with military officers. He promised to bring back civilian rule but did not announce a timeline until 1995. After the June 12 election was canceled, the United States and other countries put sanctions on Nigeria. These included travel bans for government officials and stopping arms sales.
Many Nigerians first welcomed Abacha. But soon, people became unhappy. Opposition leaders formed the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO). They wanted the Senate and other democratic groups to be brought back. On June 11, 1994, Moshood Kashimawo Olawale Abiola declared himself president. He went into hiding until his arrest on June 23. In response, oil workers went on strike. They demanded Abacha release Abiola and hand over power to him. Other unions joined the strike. This stopped economic life around Lagos and the southwest.
After calling off a threatened strike in July, the Nigeria Labour Congress (NLC) thought about a general strike in August. This was after the government set conditions for Abiola's release. On August 17, 1994, the government fired the leaders of the NLC and oil unions. They put the unions under government control. They also arrested Frank Kokori and other labor leaders.
In early 1995, the government claimed that military officers and civilians were plotting a coup. Security officers arrested the accused. This included former Head of State Obasanjo and his deputy, General Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret trial, most were found guilty. Several were sentenced to death. In 1994, the government set up a special court. It was to try Ogoni activist Ken Saro-Wiwa and others. They were accused of killing four Ogoni politicians. The court sentenced Saro-Wiwa and eight others to death. They were executed on November 10, 1995.
On October 1, 1995, Abacha announced a three-year plan to return to civilian rule. Only five political parties were approved by the government. Voter turnout for local elections in December 1997 was less than 10%. On December 20, 1997, the government arrested General Oladipo Diya. Ten officers and eight civilians were also arrested. They were charged with plotting a coup. The accused were tried by a military court. Diya and five others were sentenced to death by firing squad. Abacha enforced his power through the federal security system. This system was accused of many human rights abuses. These included limiting free speech, assembly, and travel. There were also reports of violence against women.
Abubakar's Transition to Civilian Rule
Abacha died on June 8, 1998, from heart failure. General Abdulsalami Abubakar replaced him. The military Provisional Ruling Council (PRC) under Abubakar changed the sentences of those accused in the coup plot during Abacha's rule. They released almost all known civilian political prisoners. The government followed some parts of the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. This was until the constitution written in 1995 was officially put into use. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted the order that stopped the 1979 constitution. The 1989 constitution was not put into effect. The justice system still had problems with corruption and lack of money after Abacha's death. To help fix these problems, Abubakar's government raised civil service pay and made other changes.
In August 1998, Abubakar appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). Its job was to hold elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the national assembly, and president. The INEC successfully held elections on December 5, 1998, January 9, 1999, February 20, and February 27, 1999. For local elections, nine parties were temporarily registered. Three met the requirements to run in later elections. These parties were the People's Democratic Party (PDP), the All People's Party (APP), and the mostly Yoruba Alliance for Democracy (AD). The former military head of state, Olusegun Obasanjo, was freed from prison by Abubakar. He ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. The PRC officially put a new constitution into effect. It was mostly based on the 1979 constitution. This happened before the new civilian president started on May 29, 1999. The constitution includes plans for a two-house legislature, the National Assembly. It has a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate.
Fourth Republic
The start of democracy in Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years of military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became president. He took over a country with economic problems and weak democratic groups. Obasanjo, a former general, was admired for standing against the Abacha dictatorship. He had also returned the government to civilian rule in 1979. He claimed to represent all Nigerians, no matter their religion.
The new president faced many challenges. These included a government that did not work well and broken infrastructure. The military also wanted rewards for returning to their barracks quietly. The President quickly retired hundreds of military officers who held political jobs. He set up a special group to investigate human rights violations. He released many people held without charge. He also canceled many questionable licenses and contracts left by past governments. The government also worked to get back millions of dollars hidden in overseas accounts.
Most community leaders and Nigerians saw big improvements in human rights and press freedom under Obasanjo. As Nigeria worked on its democracy, conflicts continued. These were between the Executive and Legislative branches over money and proposed laws. A sign of federalism was the growing importance of state governors. There was also friction between the capital, Abuja, and state capitals over how resources were shared.
Community violence troubled Obasanjo's government from the start. In May 1999, violence broke out in Kaduna State over who would be the next Emir. More than 100 people died. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi, Bayelsa State. They killed many civilians in revenge for 12 policemen being murdered by a local gang. In Kaduna, from February to May 2000, over 1,000 people died in riots. This was over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia law in the State. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in revenge attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people died in religious riots in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands left homeless. This was due to community violence that spread across Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa states. On October 1, 2001, Obasanjo announced a new National Security Commission. Its job was to deal with community violence. Obasanjo was reelected in 2003.
The new president faced the huge task of rebuilding an economy based on oil. Its money had been wasted through corruption and poor management. Also, Obasanjo's government had to calm long-standing ethnic and religious tensions. This was needed to build a base for economic growth and political stability. Currently, there is conflict in the Niger Delta. This is about environmental damage from oil drilling and ongoing poverty in the oil-rich region.
Another big problem from the oil industry is people illegally tapping into pipelines. They do this to take oil for themselves or to sell. This often leads to big explosions and many deaths. Some notable disasters include:
- October 1998, Jesse, 1100 deaths.
- July 2000, Jesse, 250 deaths.
- September 2004, near Lagos, 60 deaths.
- May 2006, Ilado, about 150–200 deaths.
On April 13, 2007, two unknown militants shot and killed Ustaz Ja'afar Adam. He was a northern Muslim religious leader and Kano State official. One of his students was also killed in a mosque in Kano during morning prayers. Obasanjo had recently said on national radio that he would "deal firmly" with election fraud and violence. He said this was caused by "highly placed individuals." Some thought his comments were a warning to his vice president and 2007 presidential candidate, Atiku Abubakar.
In the 2007 general election, Umaru Yar'Adua and Goodluck Jonathan were elected president and Vice President. Both were from the People's Democratic Party. The election was criticized for fraud by other candidates and international observers.
Yar'Adua's Sickness and Jonathan's Succession
Yar'Adua's presidency was full of uncertainty. Media reports said he had kidney and heart disease. In November 2009, he became ill and was flown to Saudi Arabia for medical care. He was out of contact for 50 days. Rumors spread that he had died. This continued until the BBC broadcast an interview. It was supposedly done by phone from the president's sickbed in Saudi Arabia. As of January 2010, he was still abroad.
In February 2010, Goodluck Jonathan began serving as acting president while Yar'Adua was away. In May 2010, the Nigerian government learned of Yar'Adua's death. He had fought long-term health problems and an unknown illness. This lack of communication meant the new acting President Jonathan did not know his predecessor's plans. Yar'Adua was from the Hausa-Fulani group. This gave him political support in northern Nigeria. Goodluck did not have the same ethnic and religious ties. This lack of strong ethnic support made Jonathan a target for military overthrow or regional uprisings.
With more money from resources and oil exports, Nigeria's economy and human development improved a lot. This was after the difficult rule of Sani Abacha. But most people still lived on less than US$2 per day. Goodluck Jonathan called for new elections and ran for re-election in April 2011, which he won. However, his attempt to be re-elected in 2015 failed. This was mainly because he could not stop the growing insecurity in the country. Former military ruler General Muhammadu Buhari was declared the winner of the 2015 presidential elections.
General Muhammadu Buhari took over in May 2015. This was a peaceful transfer of power from Jonathan's government. On May 29, 2015, Buhari was sworn in as President of Nigeria. He became the first opposition figure to win a presidential election since independence in 1960. On May 29, 2019, Muhammadu Buhari was sworn in for a second term. He had won the presidential election in February 2019.
The candidate for the ruling All Progressives Congress (APC), Bola Tinubu, won the February 2023 presidential election. He will succeed Muhammadu Buhari as the next president of Nigeria. However, the opposition claimed there was election fraud.
Democracy Day
Nigeria's Democracy Day was first celebrated on May 29 each year. This started when General Olusegun Obasanjo became President in 1999. However, on June 12, 2018, General Muhammadu Buhari, as president, announced a change. The date would shift from May 29 to June 12, starting in 2019. This was to remember the June 12, 1993, election and the events that happened around it.
