Mediterranean campaign of 1798 facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Mediterranean campaign of 1798
Part of the War of the Second Coalition
Click an image to load the appropriate article. Left to right, top to bottom: Battles of Malta, 15 July 1798, the Nile, 18 August 1798, the Malta Convoy, 31 March 1800
Date June – December 1798 Location Mediterranean Sea Result Allied victory
Belligerents
Great Britain After June 1798: Portugal  Russia  Ottoman Empire  Kingdom of Naples Hospitaller Malta	France Spain
Commanders and leaders
Sir Horatio Nelson Marquess of Nisa Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim	Napoleon Bonaparte François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers  † Thomas-Alexandre Dumas

The Mediterranean campaign of 1798 was a series of big naval battles. They happened when France sent an army to Egypt under Napoleon Bonaparte. This was during the French Revolutionary Wars. France wanted to take Egypt. This was a step to threaten British India and make Great Britain agree to peace.

Napoleon's fleet left Toulon in May 1798. It had over 40,000 soldiers and hundreds of ships. They sailed across the Mediterranean Sea. A small British fleet followed them. It was led by Rear-Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson. His fleet grew to 13 large warships. But Nelson had trouble finding the French. He lacked scouting ships and good information. Napoleon's first goal was Malta. This island was controlled by the Knights of St. John. Taking Malta would give France control of the Central Mediterranean. Napoleon's forces landed and quickly took over. They captured Valletta and then sailed to Egypt.

When Nelson learned Malta was captured, he guessed Egypt was the French target. He sailed for Alexandria. But he passed the French fleet at night on June 22. He did not see them and arrived in Egypt first. Nelson could not find Napoleon. So he sailed back across the Mediterranean. He reached Sicily on July 19. While Nelson was sailing west, Napoleon reached Alexandria. He stormed the city and marched his army inland. His fleet, led by Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers, waited in Aboukir Bay.

On August 1, Nelson returned to Egypt. He had heard reports of the French invasion. He arrived off Aboukir Bay. It was late afternoon, and the British had no good maps of the bay. But Nelson ordered an immediate attack. Brueys was not ready. His ships could not move well. The British split into two groups. They sailed down both sides of the French line. They captured five French ships and attacked the 120-gun flagship Orient. At 9 PM, Orient caught fire and exploded. Most of its crew died. This ended the main fighting. Small battles continued for two days. All French ships were captured, destroyed, or had fled. At the Battle of the Nile, eleven French warships and two smaller ships were lost. This trapped Napoleon in Egypt. It also changed who had power in the Mediterranean.

After the French Navy was defeated, other countries joined the fight against France. Portugal, the Kingdom of Naples, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire sent forces to the Mediterranean. The Russians and Turks helped block Egypt. They also fought in the Adriatic Sea. The Portuguese joined the Siege of Malta. Nelson, who was hurt at the Battle of the Nile, stayed in Naples. He got involved in local politics. He encouraged King Ferdinand to fight France. This led to Ferdinand losing his kingdom on the mainland. In the Western Mediterranean, Vice-Admiral Earl St Vincent commanded the British fleet. He sent forces to Menorca. They quickly captured the island. It became an important naval base.

Why Did the Campaign Happen?

Napoleon's Secret Plan

In early 1798, the War of the First Coalition ended. France controlled Northern Italy, parts of the Low Countries, and the Rhineland. Only Great Britain was still fighting France. The French government, called the French Directory, wanted to end the French Revolutionary Wars. They planned to invade Britain. General Napoleon Bonaparte, who was 28, was chosen to lead the "Army of England." This army was gathered at Boulogne. But the English Channel was controlled by the Royal Navy. France also did not have enough landing boats.

In spring 1798, Bonaparte left Boulogne. He told Paris that invading Britain was impossible. The British Navy was too strong in Northern Europe. So, Bonaparte looked south to Toulon. This was France's main port on the Mediterranean Sea. A French army and fleet were gathering there. No one knew where they were going. People thought it might be Britain, Sicily, Malta, or Crimea.

The real target was Egypt. Egypt was a key link between Britain and its rich colony, British India. Bonaparte thought taking Egypt was important. It would hurt Britain's trade with India. This would force Britain to make peace. In August 1797, he wrote that to truly defeat England, France must take Egypt. Controlling Egypt would give France power in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea. This would slow down messages and trade between Britain and India. This trade was worth a lot of money. A successful invasion of Egypt could also lead to an attack on British India. This might happen with the help of Tippoo Sultan of Seringapatam.

The French Mediterranean Fleet faced no opposition in early 1798. After a treaty in 1796, Spain allied with France. The Royal Navy had left its bases in Corsica and Elba. By early 1798, the British fleet was based in Portugal. This was their only ally on the continent. With no British fleet in the Mediterranean, Bonaparte believed the Royal Navy could not stop him. He thought this even if they found out his plans.

Napoleon ordered a fleet of thirteen ships of the line to get ready. The 120-gun Orient led them. Vice-Admiral François-Paul Brueys D'Aigalliers commanded the fleet. Many smaller warships were also prepared. This included the entire Venetian Navy, captured the year before. Up to 400 transport ships would carry 35,000 soldiers. On May 3, Bonaparte left Paris. He arrived in Toulon five days later. He oversaw the final preparations. On May 9, he reviewed the army. He told them they were going to an unknown foreign land. His soldiers were excited. The speech was printed and shared widely. The French departure was delayed by strong winds. Finally, on May 18, the winds changed. The 22 warships and 120 transports sailed the next day.

Malta: First Stop

Napoleon's fleet left Toulon on May 19. They sailed along the coast to Genoa. There, 72 more transport ships joined them. They sailed south, reaching Corsica on May 23. Another 22 transports joined from Ajaccio. The convoy stayed near the coast until May 30. They crossed the Strait of Bonifacio. They followed the coast of Sardinia. They hoped to meet more ships from Civitavecchia. On June 3, Napoleon heard that Nelson's fleet was nearby. Napoleon sent ships to check. But Nelson had already left.

Napoleon decided not to wait for the Civitavecchia ships. He ordered his fleet to turn southeast. They passed Mazara in Sicily and Pantelleria on June 7. There, a captured British ship warned Napoleon. It said Nelson was close behind with a strong British fleet. Napoleon worried about his transports. He ordered his fleet to sail quickly for Malta. They arrived off Valletta at 5:30 AM on June 9. They had just met the 56 ships from Civitavecchia. These ships had missed the first meeting and sailed to Malta alone.

The report about Nelson was wrong. Nelson's ship, Vanguard, needed six days of repairs. His fleet sailed on May 27 for Toulon. They arrived on May 31. Nelson already knew the French fleet had left. He learned this from a captured French merchant ship. But he had no extra ships or information on where the French went. So he could not chase them. On June 5, a British ship, HMS Mutine, arrived. It reported that a British fleet was a few days away. This fleet had ten large warships. It was sent by Earl St Vincent from Portugal. St Vincent had urgent orders from London. He had to send a fleet to the Mediterranean. He split his forces. He did not want to risk taking all his ships and leaving the Spanish fleet at Cadiz alone. Nelson met the new ships on June 7. He now commanded 13 large warships, one 50-gun ship, and one smaller ship. What was missing were frigates. These fast ships were vital for scouting.

Nelson's Search for the French

Nelson was delayed until June 10 by calm weather. He still did not know where the French were going. He first sailed along the Corsican coast. Then he anchored at Elba on June 12. He sent Mutine to Civitavecchia for information. But no one could find out the French destination. Nelson continued south. Two days later, he spoke with a Tunisian ship. It said the French were seen off Trapani. It also said they might be at Syracuse. On June 17, Nelson anchored near Naples. He sent a captain ashore to ask the British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton, for help. He also asked for help from the Neapolitan Navy.

The Neapolitan Prime Minister had already reported that the French were sailing for Egypt. But Hamilton did not tell Nelson this. He might have thought it was false information. Hamilton did say that Napoleon's fleet had passed Sardinia. He thought they were probably sailing towards Malta. The Neapolitan government refused to openly join the war. They did not let Nelson use their frigates. But they did quietly agree to resupply his fleet. Nelson now had a general idea of where the French were. He believed their final destination was Sicily. He sailed to chase them. But light winds slowed him down. He did not pass the Straits of Messina until June 20. There, he heard from the ambassador at Messina that the French were at Malta.

Then, on June 22, near Cape Passaro, a British ship stopped a Genoese ship. This ship reported seeing the French fleet sailing south from Malta. It said they had left Valletta on June 16. This information was wrong. The French had actually left on June 19. Nelson's fleet was only about 60 miles from Brueys' fleet. Nelson decided the French target must be Egypt or Constantinople. He called his senior captains to his ship, Vanguard. They all agreed that Egypt was the most likely target. They thought it was the best place for Napoleon to threaten India. So, Nelson turned southeast towards Alexandria. He had his men practice gunnery every day. He wanted them ready for battle. His plan was clear: divide his fleet into three groups. Two groups would attack the French fleet directly. The third would attack the transport ships. Nelson also built strong relationships with his captains. He had them over for dinner often. He later called them his "Band of Brothers."

Napoleon Takes Malta

Fort Rohan, one of the few forts whose garrison fought against the French invasion of Malta

While Nelson was gathering his fleet, Napoleon was taking Malta. He arrived off Malta on June 9. He demanded that the island's ruler, Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim, let his fleet enter the harbor. Hompesch was the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller. He refused. He said only two ships could enter at a time. Napoleon responded by firing on the harbor defenses. On June 11, he landed soldiers at seven places around Malta. General Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers led them. About 2,000 Maltese soldiers fought back. Small battles continued for 24 hours. General Claude-Henri Belgrand de Vaubois entered Mdina. The Maltese defenders went back to the fortress of Valletta.

The Maltese soldiers refused to keep fighting without government support. So, talks began. Hompesch and the knights agreed to leave Malta. They would get 3 million Francs. In return, Napoleon got all of Malta. This included its forts, military supplies, and cannons. He also got the small Maltese Navy and Army. And he took all the property of the Roman Catholic Church in Malta.

The Maltese position was already weak. Many Frenchmen were part of the Order. They refused to fight Napoleon. The French Revolution had already cut the Knights' money. They lacked resources to fight seriously. On June 12, Napoleon finally told his troops where they were going. He said they were going to Egypt. On June 19, he sailed for Alexandria. He first steered east towards Crete. He left Vaubois and 4,000 men to hold Malta. This would be a base to control the Central Mediterranean. To keep the attack on Egypt a secret, Brueys gave orders. Any merchant ships that saw the fleet were to be captured. They would be held until the fleet reached Alexandria. On June 26, the British got their first clear information. The frigate HMS Seahorse captured the French frigate Sensible. This French ship was returning from Malta. It carried treasure and wounded soldiers, including General d'Hilliers. From these prisoners, the British learned the French fleet's destination. Seahorse, joined by Terpsichore, sailed to find Nelson.

Arrival in Egypt

Nelson's journey from Sicily to Alexandria was calm. It took six days. Because he lacked frigates, Nelson could not scout widely. He only spoke with three merchant ships. None had useful information about the French fleet. The lack of frigates had a big effect on June 22. The British fleet saw four ships in the distance. Captain Thomas Thompson asked to check them. But Nelson refused. He ordered his fleet to keep going. He thought the French were five days ahead. He wanted to reach Alexandria fast. If British frigates had checked, they might have found the French fleet. It was only a short distance away. The French frigate had seen the British fleet. It told Napoleon. He changed his convoy's direction slightly. He went more to the north.

As a result, Nelson's fleet passed north of the French. This happened east of Malta during the night in a heavy mist. Nelson was so close that his signal guns could be heard on Orient. But his lookouts did not see the French ships. The British fleet kept going. When morning came, Napoleon's change in direction had taken his ships out of sight. The British fleet continued southeast. On June 28, Mutine arrived at Alexandria before Nelson's fleet. It found that the French fleet was not in the harbor. When the main fleet arrived, they tried to contact the British Consul. But he had been fired and left the city. So, Nelson could not get official information.

A message warning of the French approach was sent to the Ottoman governor. He replied that he had not seen the French fleet. He said he would keep the Ottoman Empire neutral. He would not let the British or French enter the harbor. He did not believe the British warnings. He said, "It is impossible that the French should come to our country. They have no business here and we are not at war with them." Without the consul, no more entries could be made. On the morning of June 29, there was still no sign of the French. Nelson decided to turn back northeast. He would cross the central Mediterranean again. He took a more northerly route.

French Invasion of Egypt

Bonaparte Before the Sphinx, Jean-Léon Gérôme, c. 1868, Hearst Castle, California

Napoleon's fleet was slowed by its many transport ships. It passed Cape Durazzo on Crete on June 30. It reached Alexandria the next morning. Napoleon immediately sent a small ship into the harbor. It picked up the French consul. The consul told Napoleon that Nelson had been off the port. He also said the governor refused to let the French land. Napoleon was worried Nelson might return while his men were still on the transports. He ordered the landing to start right away. Soldiers landed near Mirabou Creek. A sail appeared to the east. Everyone thought it was a British scout. There was a moment of panic. Napoleon reportedly cried, "Fortune, will you abandon me? What! Only five days!" But it was just a French frigate. The invasion continued without problems. By evening, the landing was done. But several boats were wrecked. Napoleon thought at least 20 men had drowned.

On July 2, Napoleon led his men to victory. This was in the short Battle of Alexandria. He secured the city. He put General Jean Baptiste Kléber in charge. Rear-Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley was in charge of the harbor. Napoleon found that the harbor was too shallow for his main fleet. He ordered Brueys to sail his ships to Aboukir Bay. This was about 20 miles northeast of Alexandria. Brueys was told to go to Corfu if the bay was unsafe. He should leave only a small force in Alexandria. Brueys met with his officers. They discussed what to do if Nelson found them. Rear-Admiral Armand Blanquet du Chayla thought the fleet should sail out to meet the British. But he was outvoted. Brueys ordered the ships to stay anchored in a line. They would wait for the British attack.

On July 21, the frigates Seahorse and Terpsichore arrived at Alexandria. They watched the French ships. They flew French flags to confuse observers. With no sign of Nelson, the British frigates turned back west. When Brueys learned British frigates had been seen, he thought they were retreating. He believed there was no danger of an attack. So, he did not take precautions.

Nelson Finds the French

Nelson had sailed northeast on the same day the first French ships arrived in Alexandria. He reached Anatolia on July 4. He then turned west against the wind. He sailed for Sicily again. A storm briefly scattered his ships on July 5. They regrouped the next day. On July 18, the British fleet reached Cape Passaro again. On July 19, Nelson's ships anchored in Syracuse. They took on fresh supplies. These were partly provided by Emma, Lady Hamilton, the ambassador's wife. Nelson was frustrated. He wrote to his wife, "Every moment I have to regret the frigates having left me, to which must be attributed my ignorance of the movements of the enemy."

Reports reached the British fleet in Syracuse. They said the French had not been seen in the Eastern Mediterranean. Nor in the Adriatic or Aegean Sea. This left Egypt or Syria as the only likely places. Nelson sailed again on July 25. He turned his ships east towards Morea. He sent a ship into Coron on July 28 for news. The Ottoman governor reported that the French had been seen sailing south from Crete earlier that month. He showed them a French merchant ship in the harbor. With this first clear sighting, the British fleet turned south towards Alexandria.

Battle of the Nile

On August 1, Nelson's fleet reached the Egyptian coast. Two ships, HMS Swiftsure and HMS Alexander, were sent to scout Alexandria harbor. They saw the French transport ships. But the French battle fleet was not there. Nelson was disappointed at first. But he ordered his ships to search the coastline. At 2 PM, lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French fleet. They were anchored in a line in Aboukir Bay.

Brueys believed his line was safe. It was protected by shallow areas to the north and west. He thought the British would have to attack the back and middle of his fleet. So, he put his strongest ships there. He planned to hold off the British. His front ships would use the wind to counterattack. Brueys also thought the British fleet, spread out and with night coming, would not attack that day. He believed Nelson would anchor and attack in the morning. This would give Brueys time to prepare. He could even sail away during the night. This was Napoleon's order: avoid a direct fight with the British.

Nelson's Bold Attack

Battle of the Nile, Augt 1st 1798, Thomas Whitcombe, 1816. The British fleet bears down on the French line.

Despite Brueys' hopes, Nelson decided to attack right away. He ordered his ships to advance. They only stopped to prepare their anchor cables. This would let them aim their cannons easily in the tight, shallow waters. Nelson did not have a good map of the bay. So he had to be careful. He ordered Captain Samuel Hood on Zealous to measure the depth as they went.

At 6:20 PM, the British ships HMS Goliath and Zealous rounded the northern shallow area. The leading French ships, Guerrier and Conquérant, opened fire. As he got close, Captain Thomas Foley on Goliath noticed Brueys' mistake. Brueys had left a gap between Guerrier and the shallow area. The French ships had also drifted. Foley sailed right through this gap. He fired along the length of Guerrier. Then he attacked Conquérant. Zealous also went through the gap and attacked Guerrier. Other British ships followed. They all fired heavily on the first four French ships. These French ships were not ready for an attack on their left sides.

Nelson followed in Vanguard. He brought the next two ships to fight the right side of the French front. This caught the French ships in a crossfire. They were quickly damaged. Their masts were broken. But they fought hard. As the French front was destroyed, HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic attacked the French center. They were outnumbered. They faced the heavy fire of Orient and the 80-gun Franklin and Tonnant. Both British ships were badly damaged. Culloden, at the back of the British line, went too close to the northern shallow area. It got stuck. Its hull was badly damaged.

By 7 PM, it was dark. Within an hour, the French front was defeated. Guerrier, Conquérant, Spartiate, Aquilon, and Peuple Souverain were either captured or too damaged to fight. The British ships were also damaged. Vanguard and Goliath were hit hard. To the south, Bellerophon and Majestic had to cut their anchors and move away. Bellerophon lost its masts. Majestic's captain was killed. On Vanguard, Nelson suffered a bad head wound.

The Orient Explodes

Battle of the Nile, Thomas Luny.

Shortly after 8 PM, Swiftsure and Alexander arrived. They were joined by Leander. They attacked the French center. They badly damaged Franklin. Admiral Brueys was killed by a cannon shot. At 9 PM, a fire started at the back of Orient. The fire spread quickly. Shots from Swiftsure made it worse. The flames went up the masts and across the decks. The entire flagship became a blazing wreck. At 10 PM, the huge gunpowder magazines exploded. The ship was torn apart. Burning wreckage flew onto nearby ships. For ten minutes, no shots were fired. The closest ships fought fires. Others paused in shock.

The first ship to start fighting again was Franklin. But Admiral Blanquet's ship was outnumbered. It was forced to surrender by midnight. Tonnant, the only French ship still fighting, battled Majestic until 3 AM. Its captain, Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars, was badly wounded. He managed to move his ship to the safety of the rear division. This group was led by Rear-Admiral Pierre-Charles Villeneuve.

At 4 AM on August 2, fighting started again. It was between Villeneuve's ships and a small British group. By 11 AM, Villeneuve had successfully pulled back. He escaped to open water. But Villeneuve had to leave behind the damaged Tonnant. He also left the grounded Timoléon. He only kept two large warships and two frigates. While Villeneuve escaped, British ships took the surrender of Heureux and Mercure. These had run aground after Orient exploded. The British also forced the captain of the frigate Artémise to sink his ship. On August 3, Theseus and Leander were sent to finish off the French fleet. Tonnant surrendered. Timoléon was set on fire by its crew and destroyed.

After the Battle

The French Mediterranean Fleet was almost completely destroyed. Nine of eleven large warships were captured or destroyed. Two frigates were also lost. French casualties were over 3,000, possibly up to 5,000. British losses were 218 killed and 677 wounded. However, many of Nelson's ships were badly damaged. Urgent repairs were needed for his ships and the captured ones. Then they could make the long trip back to Britain.

Nelson stayed in Aboukir Bay for more than two weeks. He made repairs. He wrote reports. He thought about the situation in Egypt. The first ship sent from his fleet was Leander. It was sent on August 5 to Earl St. Vincent's fleet off Cádiz. It carried news of the battle. On August 8, Aboukir Island was captured. On August 12, three more British ships finally caught up with the fleet. Two more followed on August 17. Mutine was sent on August 13 with reports for the Admiralty. On August 14, Nelson sent seven ships with six captured ships to the mouth of Aboukir Bay. This group was led by Saumarez. This convoy sailed for Gibraltar on August 15. The next day, Nelson burned Heureux. On August 18, he burned Mercure and Guerrier. None of these ships were fit to be used again. On August 19, Nelson split his remaining ships. He led three vessels north towards Naples. He left a blockade group off Alexandria. This group included Zealous, Goliath, Swiftsure, and the frigates. Captain Samuel Hood commanded them.

By the time Nelson left Alexandria, his first reports were already in French hands. Leander was found off western Crete on August 18, 1798. It was found by the French warship Généreux. This was one of Villeneuve's ships that escaped. After leaving Villeneuve's group on August 17, Généreux was sailing to Corfu. It met the British ship. The larger French ship soon caught the British one. A fierce fight followed. French attempts to board Leander were pushed back. The French suffered many losses. The British captain even fired along the length of his opponent. But the heavier guns of Généreux slowly damaged the British ship. After six and a half hours, the British captain had to surrender.

The French captain then allowed his crew to steal from the British sailors. He also forced the British crew to repair both ships. This was against the rules of naval warfare. The captured ship was towed to Corfu for repairs. The two damaged ships briefly met Mutine. Mutine escaped before Généreux could chase it. While in captivity, the French captain continued to deny British officers medical help. He also did not return their stolen property. The British captain was later returned to Britain. He was knighted and praised for defending his ship against great odds. The French captain was also praised for his success. This was helped by his incorrect story of the battle.

Blockading Alexandria

With few French ships left in the Mediterranean, other countries could now control the area. Off Alexandria, the British ships under Captain Hood stopped communications between France and the French army in Egypt. On August 22, just three days after Nelson sailed north, a British ship stopped a French message ship. Its captain threw the messages into the sea. Two British sailors saw this. They jumped into the water. They successfully got the messages. For their bravery, both men got yearly payments.

Three days later, Captain Foley sent a boat into the harbor. His men captured a small French armed boat. On September 2, another message ship reached Egypt. It carried a French general and 60 men from Malta. Two British ships managed to cut off the vessel. They drove it ashore. The ship broke apart. Most men got ashore. But local fighters found them. They killed many. A few survivors were dragged inland. French cavalry rescued them. Only five men were saved by a British officer. He swam to shore with an empty barrel.

In October, the small British group at Alexandria got help. A Portuguese group of four warships joined them. Also, a British ship joined. On October 19, two Turkish ships and two Russian frigates joined. Sixteen small Turkish gunboats also arrived. These were arranged by Hood. The gunboats were used to attack a French fort and camp. But the attacks did little. After the first day, British sailors replaced the Turkish crews. The French complained that "unfair" burning weapons were used. These shells were taken from a captured French ship. They burned even underwater. After three days, the attacks stopped. No more fighting happened on the Egyptian coast that year. The Turkish and Russian ships left in December. The British ship joined the blockade of Malta.

Battles in the Ionian Sea

The main fleets of the Ottoman Empire and Russia were in the Ionian Sea. In a past treaty, France had gained the Ionian Islands. They also got four forts on the Albanian and Greek coasts. In early October, war broke out between France and the Ottomans. A large Turkish army moved across the Balkans. They quickly forced the forts to surrender. At the same time, a joint Russian and Turkish force attacked the Ionian Islands. This force included ten Russian warships and many smaller ships. About 30 Turkish ships also joined. They had 8,000 Turkish soldiers. They quickly invaded and took six islands. They captured 1,500 French prisoners by October 10. Only the large, fortified island of Corfu held out. The defenders there were pushed back into the main town. The town was under siege. But the blockade was not very strict. This allowed a French warship to escape to Ancona. By the end of the year, little had changed. The French soldiers remained trapped in Corfu.

Malta and Naples

Further west, the French island of Malta was under a much tighter blockade. The ships returning from Aboukir Bay reached Malta in September. They met a group of four Portuguese warships and a British ship. This group was led by the Marquess de Niza. He initially sent them to Alexandria. While anchored off Malta, a group of Maltese citizens came aboard a British ship on September 25. They said the Maltese people were angry. The French had removed the Roman Catholic Church in Malta. So, the Maltese had risen up against the French soldiers. They were pushing them back towards the fortress of Valletta.

The British tried to get the island to surrender. But the French commander refused. The British could not delay their trip to Gibraltar any longer. So, they gave the Maltese 1,200 muskets. They promised to send help soon. By October 12, the French were trapped in Valletta. About 10,000 Maltese fighters surrounded them. The French commander had only 3,000 healthy soldiers. But the arrival of Villeneuve with a warship and two frigates helped their defenses.

On the same day the French retreated to Valletta, Nelson sent ships to blockade the port. These ships were from his group at Naples. They were led by Captain Alexander Ball. The people of Naples refused to send forces to Malta. But the British ships were joined by the Portuguese ships. Then Nelson, now Lord Nelson, arrived on October 24. Four days later, Nelson let Ball negotiate the surrender of the nearby island of Gozo. The French left the island's forts. The British captured 24 cannons and 3,200 sacks of grain. This grain was badly needed by the Maltese people. With the French soldiers trapped in Valletta, no more fighting happened off Malta that year. Both sides prepared for a long siege.

While his captains blockaded Malta and Alexandria, Nelson was in the Bay of Naples. He enjoyed the hospitality of King Ferdinand and Queen Maria Carolina. He arrived on September 22. His ship was greeted by over 500 small boats. The royal family led them. Over the next weeks, Nelson was a honored guest. He has been accused of ignoring his naval duties. It was at this time that his attraction to Lady Emma Hamilton grew into a romantic affair. He also started getting involved in Neapolitan politics. He worked with the Queen to encourage Ferdinand to go to war with France. Ferdinand ordered his army to drive the French out of Rome. But this campaign was a disaster for Naples. The French fought back. They forced Ferdinand and his court to flee to Palermo in Sicily. The French set up a new government in Naples.

Spain and Menorca

Capture of the Dorothea, 15 July 1798, Thomas Whitcombe, 1816

While Nelson was fighting in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean, the main British fleet kept the Spanish Navy from joining the fight. On May 24, Earl St Vincent's fleet was joined by eight more ships. The admiral ordered his ships to blockade Spanish ports. Especially Cádiz, where the main Spanish fleet was. The Spanish fleet did not make any big moves that year. Only one group of ships sailed in April. Small privateer ships fought minor battles along the Spanish coast. The only important Spanish action was by a group of frigates. They were based at Cartagena. A British warship intercepted them. In the Action of 15 July 1798, the Spanish ships formed a line to meet the attack. But a damaged frigate fell behind. The leading ships returned to Cartagena. The damaged frigate was defeated and captured.

After the French fleet was destroyed, St Vincent wanted to restore British power in the Mediterranean. For this, his fleet needed a base. It needed a deep water harbor that could not be attacked by land. The best island harbor in the Western Mediterranean was at Port Mahon on Menorca. It had a large, modern shipyard. This included repair docks, storehouses, and a naval hospital. These were all built by the British during past occupations. St Vincent sent two warships, three frigates, and smaller vessels to the island. Commodore John Thomas Duckworth led them. They carried a small army under Colonel Charles Stuart.

The force arrived off Menorca on November 7. The troops landed. A Spanish attack was driven off. Over the next two days, the army moved inland. A group captured Port Mahon. The main army took town after town. This included a town that overlooked the island's main harbor. On November 11, a Spanish group of four frigates tried to stop them. But a quick attack by Duckworth's ships drove them away. By November 16, the main town surrendered. Control of the island was given to British forces.