Military history of the Miꞌkmaq facts for kids
The military history of the Miꞌkmaq is about the brave Miꞌkmaw warriors, called smáknisk. They fought in wars against the English (who became the British after 1707). Sometimes they fought alone, and sometimes they worked with the Acadians and French soldiers. The Miꞌkmaw fighters were very strong for over 75 years. This was before the Halifax Treaties were signed between 1760 and 1761.
In the 1800s, the Miꞌkmaq proudly said they had "killed more men than they lost" against the British. In 1753, Charles Morris noted that the Miꞌkmaq were hard to find because they "wandered from place to place in unknown and, therefore, inaccessible woods." This made it very difficult for enemies to surprise them.
Leaders on both sides used common colonial war tactics. After some fights against the British during the American Revolutionary War, the Miꞌkmaw fighters were less active in the 1800s. During this time, the Miꞌkmaq focused on talking with local leaders to make sure treaties were honored. Later, Miꞌkmaw warriors joined Canada's efforts in World War I and World War II. Famous Miꞌkmaw leaders from this time included Chief (Sakamaw) Jean-Baptiste Cope and Chief Étienne Bâtard.
Contents
Early Conflicts (1500s)
Battle at Bae de Bic (1534)
In the spring of 1534, a big battle happened at Bae de Bic. According to Jacques Cartier, 100 Iroquois warriors attacked 200 Miꞌkmaq who were camped on Massacre Island in the St. Lawrence River. Bae de Bic was a place where the Miꞌkmaq gathered every year.
Miꞌkmaw scouts warned their village about the Iroquois attack the night before. They quickly moved 30 sick and elderly people to safety. About 200 Miꞌkmaq left their camp on the shore and went to an island in the bay. They hid in a cave and covered the entrance with branches.
The Iroquois arrived at the empty village the next morning. They searched but did not find the Miꞌkmaq until the following day. Miꞌkmaw warriors defended their people against the first Iroquois attack. After many were wounded on both sides, the rising tide helped the Miꞌkmaq push back the Iroquois, who then went back to the mainland.
The Miꞌkmaq built defenses on the island for the next attack at low tide. Again, the Iroquois were pushed back and returned to the mainland as the tide rose. The next morning, the tide was low again, and the Iroquois made their final move. They used arrows that carried fire, which burned down the Miꞌkmaw defenses. This led to a terrible defeat for the Miꞌkmaq. Twenty Iroquois were killed and thirty were wounded.
Battle at Bouabouscache River
Before the Battle at Bae de Bic, Miꞌkmaw scouts found where the Iroquois had hidden their canoes and supplies on the Bouabousche River. The Miꞌkmaq got help from 25 Maliseet warriors.
The Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters ambushed the first group of Iroquois who arrived. They killed ten and wounded five Iroquois warriors. When the second group of Iroquois arrived, the Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters safely retreated into the woods.
The Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters had stolen most of the Iroquois canoes. The Iroquois left twenty wounded behind and 50 went to find their hidden supplies. They couldn't find them and returned to their camp at the end of the day. They found that the 20 wounded soldiers they left behind had been killed by the Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters.
The next morning, the 38 remaining Iroquois warriors left their camp. They killed twelve of their own wounded who couldn't survive the long journey back home. Ten Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet stayed with the stolen canoes and supplies, while the other 15 chased the Iroquois. They chased the Iroquois for three days, killing eleven more wounded Iroquois who fell behind.
Battle at Riviere Trois Pistoles
Soon after the Bouabouscache River battle, the retreating Iroquois camped on the Riviere Trois Pistoles to build new canoes. An Iroquois hunting party was sent to find food. The Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters killed the hunting party.
The Iroquois went to find their missing hunters and were ambushed by the Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet. They killed nine Iroquois, leaving 29 warriors who went back to their camp. The Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters split into two groups and attacked the remaining Iroquois. In this battle, three Maliseet warriors died, and many others were wounded. The Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet won, killing all but six of the Iroquois, whom they captured.
Kwedech–Miꞌkmaq War
Stories tell of a war in the 1500s between the Kwedech (St. Lawrence Iroquois) and the Miꞌkmaq. The great Miꞌkmaw chief Ulgimoo led his people. The Miꞌkmaq successfully pushed the Kwedech out of the Maritimes, and the conflict ended with a peace treaty.
Conflicts in the 1600s
A group of Miꞌkmaq who lived in New England were called Tarrantines. In 1619, 300 Tarrantine warriors killed Nanepashemet and his wife at Mystic Fort. This event ended the Massachusetts Federation.
Penobscot–Tarrantine War
Before 1620, the Penobscot-Tarrantine War happened in what is now Maine. The Pawtucket Tribe supported the Penobscot. This later led to the Tarrantines raiding the Pawtucket and Agawam (Ipswich) Tribes. In 1633, Tarrantines raided the camp of Chief Masconomet at Agawam in Essex County.
King Philip's War
The first recorded war between the Miꞌkmaq and the British was during the First Abenaki War (part of King Philip's War). This included the Battle of Port La Tour (1677). After King Philip's War, the Miꞌkmaq joined the Wapnáki (Wabanaki Confederacy). This was an alliance with four other Algonquian-speaking nations: the Abenaki, Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Maliseet.
The Wabanaki Confederacy teamed up with French colonists in Acadia. For 75 years, during six wars in Miꞌkmaꞌki (Acadia and Nova Scotia), the Miꞌkmaq fought to stop the British from taking over the region. The first war with many Miꞌkmaw fighters involved was King William's War.
King William's War
During King William's War, Miꞌkmaw fighters helped defend against the British moving into Miꞌkmaki. They fought alongside their Wabanaki and French allies against the British along the Kennebec River in southern Maine. This river was the natural border between Acadia and New England.
To do this, the Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet fighters operated from their base at Meductic on the Saint John River. They joined French attacks against places like present-day Bristol, Maine (the Siege of Pemaquid (1689)), Salmon Falls, and present-day Portland, Maine. The Miꞌkmaq took British prisoners during these fights. In response, New Englanders attacked Port Royal and present-day Guysborough.
In 1692, Miꞌkmaq from across the region took part in the Raid on Wells (1692). In 1694, the Maliseet participated in the Raid on Oyster River in present-day Durham, New Hampshire.
Two years later, New France, led by Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville, returned. They fought a naval battle in the Bay of Fundy before raiding Bristol, Maine again. Before this battle, on July 5, 140 Native people (Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet) ambushed the crews of four English ships. They killed five of nine men who were coming ashore for firewood.
In return for the Siege of Pemaquid (1696), New Englanders, led by Benjamin Church, attacked Raid on Chignecto (1696) and the capital of Acadia at Fort Nashwaak. After the Siege of Pemaquid (1696), d'Iberville led 124 Canadians, Acadians, Miꞌkmaq, and Abenakis in the Avalon Peninsula Campaign. They destroyed almost every English settlement in Newfoundland. Over 100 English were killed, many more captured, and nearly 500 were sent to England or France.
Conflicts in the 1700s
Queen Anne's War
During Queen Anne's War, Miꞌkmaw fighters again defended Miꞌkmaki against the British. They made many raids along the Acadia/New England border in the Northeast Coast Campaign.
In response to these raids, Major Benjamin Church went on his fifth and final trip to Acadia. He raided present-day Castine, Maine, and then attacked Grand Pre, Pisiquid, and Chignecto. In the summer of 1705, Miꞌkmaq killed a fisherman near Cape Sables.
A few years later, Captain March tried but failed to capture the capital of Acadia, Port Royal (1707). The New Englanders successfully captured Port Royal in 1710. The Wabanaki Confederacy won the nearby Battle of Bloody Creek (1711) in 1711.
The British capture of Acadia in 1710 was confirmed by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. This treaty said that mainland Nova Scotia belonged to the British. However, present-day New Brunswick and most of Maine were still disputed. New England gave up Île St Jean and Île Royale (Prince Edward Island and Cape Breton) to the French. On Cape Breton, the French built a strong fort at Louisbourg to protect the sea routes to Quebec. In 1712, the Miꞌkmaq captured over twenty New England fishing boats off the coast of Nova Scotia.
In 1715, the Miꞌkmaq learned that the British now claimed their ancient lands because of the Treaty of Utrecht. The Miꞌkmaq were not part of this treaty. They formally complained to the French commander at Louisbourg, saying the French king could not give away their land because he didn't own it. Only then were they told that the French had claimed legal ownership of their country for a century, based on laws made by kings in Europe.
Native people did not see why they should accept British rule over Nova Scotia. The British tried to settle outside the trading posts at Canso and Annapolis, which the Miꞌkmaq had allowed. On May 14, 1715, New England naval commander Cyprian Southack tried to create a permanent fishing station at "Cape Roseway" (now Shelburne). In July 1715, the Miꞌkmaq raided the station and burned it down.
In July 1715, two Boston merchants reported that the Miꞌkmaq said, "the Lands are theirs and they can make Warr and peace when they please...." In response, Southack led a raid on Canso, Nova Scotia (1718) and encouraged Governor Phillips to fortify Canso.
Father Rale's War
Before Father Rale's War (1722–1725), some Miꞌkmaq raided Fort William Augustus at Canso, Nova Scotia (1720). To prevent an attack on Annapolis Royal, Lieutenant Governor John Doucett took 22 Miꞌkmaq hostage in May 1722. In July 1722, the Abenaki and Miꞌkmaq blocked Annapolis Royal, trying to starve the capital. They captured 18 fishing boats and prisoners from present-day Yarmouth to Canso. They also took prisoners and boats from the Bay of Fundy.
Because of the growing conflict, Massachusetts Governor Samuel Shute declared war on July 22, 1722. The first battle of Father Rale's War in Nova Scotia happened in response to the Annapolis Royal blockade. In late July 1722, New England launched a campaign to end the blockade and get back over 86 New England prisoners. One of these operations led to the Battle at Jeddore.
Raid on Georgetown
On September 10, 1722, 400 or 500 St. Francis (Odanak) and Miꞌkmaq attacked Georgetown (present-day Arrowsic, Maine). Captain Penhallow's small guard fired, wounding three and killing one Native person. This defense gave the villagers time to retreat into the fort. The Native forces then took over the undefended village, killed fifty cattle, and burned twenty-six houses outside the fort. They then attacked the fort, killing one New Englander. Georgetown was burned.
That night, Colonel Walton and Captain Harman arrived with thirty men, joined by about forty men from the fort. The combined force of seventy men attacked the Native forces but were outnumbered. The New Englanders then retreated back into the fort. Seeing that further attacks on the fort were useless, the Native forces eventually went up the river.
On their way back to Norridgewock, the Native forces attacked Fort Richmond. The fort was attacked for three hours. Houses were burned and cattle killed, but the fort held. Brunswick and other settlements near the Kennebec River mouth were burned. The next attack was a raid on Canso in 1723.
During the 1724 Northeast Coast Campaign, with help from the Miꞌkmaq from Cape Sable Island, the Native forces also fought at sea. In just a few weeks, they captured 22 ships, killed 22 New Englanders, and took more prisoners. They also tried but failed to capture St. George's Fort in Thomaston, Maine.
In early July 1724, sixty Miꞌkmaq and Maliseets raided Annapolis Royal. They killed a sergeant and a private, wounded four more soldiers, and scared the village. They also burned houses and took prisoners. The British responded by executing one of the Miꞌkmaw hostages where the sergeant was killed. They also burned three Acadian houses in return.
As a result of the raid, three blockhouses were built to protect the town. The Acadian church was moved closer to the fort so it could be watched more easily. In 1725, sixty Abenakis and Miꞌkmaq attacked Canso again, destroying two houses and killing six people.
The treaty that ended the war was a big change in how Europeans dealt with the Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet. For the first time, a European empire officially recognized that its rule over Nova Scotia would need to be discussed with the Native people of the region. This treaty was used as recently as 1999 in the Donald Marshall case.
King George's War
News of war declarations reached the French fortress at Louisbourg first, on May 3, 1744. The forces there quickly began fighting, which became known as King George's War. Within a week, a military trip to Canso was planned, and on May 23, a group of ships left Louisbourg harbor. In the same month, British Captain David Donahue captured the Miꞌkmaw chief of Ile Royale, Jacques Pandanuques, and his family, taking them to Boston. Donahue used the trick of pretending to be a French ship to trap Chief Pandanuques. Later, Donahue was captured and killed by the Miꞌkmaq.
Worried about their land supply routes to Quebec and seeking revenge for their chief's death, the Miꞌkmaq and French first raided the British fishing port of Canso on May 23. In response, Governor Shirley of Massachusetts declared war against the Miꞌkmaq.
The Miꞌkmaq and French then planned an attack on Annapolis Royal, the capital of Nova Scotia. However, French forces were late leaving Louisbourg, and their Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet allies decided to attack on their own in early July. Annapolis had heard about the war and was somewhat ready when the Native forces began attacking Fort Anne. Without heavy weapons, the Native forces left after a few days. Then, in mid-August, a larger French force arrived at Fort Anne but also couldn't attack effectively. The fort was helped by the New England company of Gorham's Rangers. Gorham led his Native rangers in a surprise raid on a nearby Miꞌkmaw camp. They killed women and children. The Miꞌkmaq left, and Duvivier had to retreat back to Grand Pre on October 5.
During the Siege of Annapolis Royal (1745), the Miꞌkmaq and Maliseet captured William Pote and some of Gorham's Rangers. Pote was taken to the Maliseet village Aukpaque on the Saint John River. While there, Miꞌkmaq from Nova Scotia arrived. On July 6, 1745, they tortured him and a Mohawk ranger named Jacob. This was revenge for Ranger John Gorham killing their family members during the Siege of Annapolis Royal (1744). On July 10, Pote saw another act of revenge when the Miꞌkmaq tortured another Mohawk ranger at Meductic.
Many Miꞌkmaw warriors and French Officer Paul Marin de la Malgue were stopped from helping to protect Louisbourg by Captain Donahew. He defeated them in the Naval battle off Tatamagouche (and had earlier killed the Miꞌkmaw chief of Cape Breton). In 1745, British colonial forces captured Siege of Port Toulouse (St. Peter's) and then Fortress Louisbourg after a six-week siege.
Weeks after Louisbourg fell, Donahew and Fones again fought Marin, who was nearing the Strait of Canso. Donahew and 11 of his men went ashore and were immediately surrounded by 300 Native people. The captain and five of his men were killed, and the remaining six were captured. Miꞌkmaw fighters stayed outside Louisbourg, attacking those who went for firewood or food.
In response to the Siege of Louisbourg (1745), Miꞌkmaw warriors took part in the Northeast Coast Campaign (1745). This campaign began on July 19 when Miꞌkmaq from Nova Scotia, Maliseet, and some from St. Francois attacked Fort St. George (Thomaston) and New Castle. They burned many buildings, killed cattle, and took one villager captive. They also killed a person at Saco.
In 1745, Miꞌkmaq killed 7 English crew members at LaHave, Nova Scotia. The English did not dry fish on the east coast of Acadia because they feared being killed by the Miꞌkmaq. By the end of 1745, French reports clearly stated that "the English have been deterred from forming any settlement in Acadia solely by the dread of these Indians" and that the French felt they were under Native "protection."
France launched a major expedition to get Acadia back in 1746. It was hit by storms, disease, and then its commander, the Duc d'Anville, died. It returned to France in bad shape without reaching its goal. The disease from the crew then spread among the Miꞌkmaw tribes, killing hundreds.
Newfoundland
In response to the Newfoundland Campaign (1744), the next year, Miꞌkmaw fighters from Ile Royal raided British outposts in Newfoundland in August 1745. They attacked several British houses, taking 23 prisoners. The following spring, the Miꞌkmaq began taking 12 prisoners to a meeting point near St. John's, on their way to Quebec. The British prisoners managed to kill their Miꞌkmaw captors at this meeting spot. Two days later, another group of Miꞌkmaq took the remaining 11 British prisoners to the same spot. When they found out what happened to their fellow Miꞌkmaq, they killed the remaining 11 British prisoners.
Father Le Loutre's War
Despite the British capture of Acadia in 1710, Nova Scotia was still mostly lived in by Catholic Acadians and Miꞌkmaq. To stop Protestant settlements from being built, Miꞌkmaq raided early British settlements like present-day Shelburne (1715) and Canso (1720).
A generation later, Father Le Loutre's War began when Edward Cornwallis arrived to establish Halifax with 13 ships on June 21, 1749. By building Halifax without talking to them, historian William Wicken says the British broke earlier treaties with the Miꞌkmaq (1726), which were signed after Father Rale's War.
The British quickly started building other settlements. To protect against Miꞌkmaq, Acadian, and French attacks on these new Protestant settlements, British forts were built in Halifax (Citadel Hill) (1749), Bedford (Fort Sackville) (1749), Dartmouth (1750), Lunenburg (1753), and Lawrencetown (1754). There were many Miꞌkmaw and Acadian raids on these villages, such as the Raid on Dartmouth (1751).
Within 18 months of building Halifax, the British also took strong control of the Nova Scotia peninsula. They built forts in all the main Acadian communities: present-day Windsor (Fort Edward); Grand Pre (Fort Vieux Logis); and Chignecto (Fort Lawrence). (A British fort already existed at Annapolis Royal. Cobequid did not have a fort.) There were many Miꞌkmaw and Acadian raids on these forts.
Raid on Dartmouth (1749)

The Miꞌkmaq saw the founding of Halifax without discussion as a violation of earlier agreements with the British. On September 24, 1749, the Miꞌkmaq officially declared their opposition to the British settlement plans without more formal talks.
On September 30, 1749, about forty Miꞌkmaq attacked six men working in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, near a sawmill. Four men were killed, one was captured, and one escaped. Major Gilman and others escaped and raised the alarm. A group of rangers was sent after the raiding party. This raid was the first of eight against Dartmouth during the war.
Siege of Grand Pre
Two months later, on November 27, 1749, 300 Miꞌkmaq, Maliseet, and Acadians attacked Fort Vieux Logis. This fort had recently been built by the British in the Acadian community of Grand Pre. The fort was led by Captain Handfield. The Native and Acadian fighters killed the guards who were shooting at them.
The Native forces then captured Lieutenant John Hamilton and eighteen soldiers who were checking the area around the fort. After the British soldiers were captured, the Native and Acadian fighters tried several times over the next week to attack the fort before leaving. Gorham's Rangers were sent to help the fort. When they arrived, the fighters had already left with the prisoners. The prisoners were held captive for several years before being released for a payment. There was no fighting during the winter, which was common in frontier warfare.
Battle at St. Croix
The next spring, on March 18, 1750, John Gorham and his Rangers left Fort Sackville (at present-day Bedford, Nova Scotia). They were ordered by Governor Cornwallis to march to Piziquid (present-day Windsor, Nova Scotia). Gorham's job was to build a blockhouse at Piziquid, which became Fort Edward. He was also to take the property of Acadians who had been part of the Siege of Grand Pre.
Around noon on March 20, Gorham and his men arrived at the Acadian village of Five Houses, next to the St. Croix River. They found all the houses empty. Seeing a group of Miꞌkmaq hiding in the bushes on the other side of the river, the Rangers opened fire. The fight turned into a siege, with Gorham's men taking shelter in a sawmill and two houses. During the fighting, three Rangers were wounded, including Gorham, who was shot in the thigh. As the fighting got worse, a request for more soldiers was sent back to Fort Sackville.
Responding to the call for help on March 22, Governor Cornwallis ordered Captain William Clapham's and Captain St. Loe's Regiments, with two field guns, to join Gorham at Piziquid. The extra troops and artillery changed the battle for Gorham and forced the Miꞌkmaq to leave.
Gorham then went to present-day Windsor and made Acadians take apart their church, Notre Dame de l'Assomption. This was so Fort Edward could be built in its place.
Raids on Halifax

There were four raids on Halifax during the war. The first raid happened in October 1750. While in the woods on the Halifax peninsula, Miꞌkmaq captured six people. Cornwallis' gardener and his son were taken. The son was buried, while the gardener's body was left behind. The other six were taken prisoner to Grand Pre for five months. Another writer, Thomas Akins, says this raid was in July and that four of the six British attacked were taken prisoner and never seen again. Soon after this raid, Cornwallis learned that the Miꞌkmaq had been paid by the French at Chignecto for five prisoners taken at Halifax, as well as prisoners taken earlier at Dartmouth and Grand Pre.
In 1751, there were two attacks on blockhouses around Halifax. Miꞌkmaq attacked the North Blockhouse and killed the guards. Miꞌkmaq also attacked near the South Blockhouse, at a sawmill on a stream flowing out of Chocolate Lake into the Northwest Arm. They killed two men.
Raids on Dartmouth

There were six raids on Dartmouth during this time. In July 1750, the Miꞌkmaq killed 7 men who were working in Dartmouth.
In August 1750, 353 people arrived on the Alderney and started the town of Dartmouth. The town was planned out that autumn. The next month, on September 30, 1750, Dartmouth was attacked again by the Miꞌkmaq, and five more residents were killed. In October 1750, a group of about eight men went out "to take their diversion; and as they were fowling, they were attacked by the Indians, who took the whole prisoners..."
The following spring, on March 26, 1751, the Miꞌkmaq attacked again, killing fifteen settlers and wounding seven. Three of the wounded later died. They took six captives. The soldiers who chased the Miꞌkmaq fell into an ambush where a sergeant was killed. Two days later, on March 28, 1751, Miꞌkmaq captured three more settlers.
Two months later, on May 13, 1751, Broussard led sixty Miꞌkmaq and Acadians to attack Dartmouth again. This event became known as the "Dartmouth Massacre". Broussard and his group killed twenty settlers and took more prisoners. A sergeant was also killed. They destroyed buildings. Captain William Clapham and sixty soldiers fired from the blockhouse. The British killed six Miꞌkmaw warriors. Those at a camp at Dartmouth Cove, led by John Wisdom, helped the settlers. Upon returning to their camp the next day, they found the Miꞌkmaq had also raided their camp and taken a prisoner. The British took the bodies to Halifax for burial in the Old Burying Ground.
In 1752, Miꞌkmaw attacks on the British along the coast, both east and west of Halifax, were frequent. Fishermen had to stay on land because they were often targets. In early July, New Englanders killed two Miꞌkmaw girls and one boy off the coast of Cape Sable (Port La Tour, Nova Scotia). In August, at St. Peter's, Nova Scotia, Miꞌkmaq captured two schooners—the Friendship from Halifax and the Dolphin from New England—along with 21 prisoners who were later released for payment.
On September 14, 1752, Governor Peregrine Hopson and the Nova Scotia Council made the 1752 Peace Treaty with Jean-Baptiste Cope. (The treaty was officially signed on November 22, 1752.) Cope could not get other Miꞌkmaw leaders to support the treaty. Cope burned the treaty six months after he signed it. Despite the peace breaking down on the eastern shore, the British did not officially reject the Treaty of 1752 until 1756.
Attack at Mocodome (Country Harbour)
On February 21, 1753, nine Miꞌkmaq from Nartigouneche (present-day Antigonish, Nova Scotia) in canoes attacked a British ship at Country Harbour, Nova Scotia. The ship was from Canso, Nova Scotia and had a crew of four. The Miꞌkmaq fired at them and pushed them toward the shore. Other Native people joined in and boarded the ship, forcing them into an inlet. The Miꞌkmaq killed two British men and took two others captive. After seven weeks, on April 8, the two British prisoners killed six Miꞌkmaq and escaped.
Attack at Jeddore
In response, on the night of April 21, Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and the Miꞌkmaq attacked another British schooner in a sea battle off Jeddore, Nova Scotia. On board were nine British men and one Acadian (Casteel), who was the pilot. The Miꞌkmaq killed the British and let the Acadian go at Port Toulouse, where the Miꞌkmaq sank the schooner after taking its goods. In August 1752, the Miꞌkmaq at Saint Peter's captured the schooners Friendship of Halifax and Dolphin of New England, taking 21 prisoners for ransom.
Raid on Halifax (1753)
In 1753, when Lawrence became governor, the Miꞌkmaq attacked the sawmills near the South Blockhouse on the Northwest Arm again. They killed three British men. On the other side of the harbor in Dartmouth, in 1753, there were only five families reported. All of them refused to farm because they feared being attacked if they left the fenced area around the village.
Raid on Lawrencetown
In 1754, the British started Lawrencetown on their own. In late April 1754, Beausoleil and a large group of Miꞌkmaq and Acadians left Chignecto for Lawrencetown. They arrived in mid-May and fired on the village at night. Beausoleil killed four British settlers and two soldiers. By August, as the raids continued, the residents and soldiers were moved back to Halifax. By June 1757, the settlers had to be completely removed from Lawrencetown again because the many Native raids stopped settlers from leaving their homes.
A well-known Halifax businessman, Michael Francklin, was captured by a Miꞌkmaw raiding party in 1754 and held for three months.
French and Indian War
The last colonial war was the French and Indian War. The British captured Acadia in 1710. For the next 45 years, the Acadians refused to sign an unconditional oath of loyalty to Britain. During this time, Acadians took part in various military actions against the British. They also kept important supply lines open to the French Fortress of Louisbourg and Fort Beausejour.
During the French and Indian War, the British wanted to stop any military threat from Acadians and Miꞌkmaw fighters in Nova Scotia. They especially wanted to protect the northern New England border in Maine. The British aimed to prevent future attacks from the Wabanaki Confederacy, French, and Acadians on this border. The British saw the Acadians' loyalty to the French and the Wabanaki Confederacy as a military threat. Father Le Loutre's War had created conditions for "total war." British civilians had not been spared. Governor Charles Lawrence and the Nova Scotia Council believed that Acadian civilians had provided information, shelter, and supplies, while others had fought against the British.
Within Acadia, the British also wanted to cut off the vital supplies Acadians provided to Louisbourg. They did this by deporting Acadians from Acadia. Defeating Louisbourg would also mean defeating the ally who supplied the Miꞌkmaq with ammunition to fight.
The British began the Expulsion of the Acadians with the Bay of Fundy Campaign (1755). Over the next nine years, more than 12,000 Acadians were removed from Nova Scotia. The Acadians were sent across the Atlantic, to the Thirteen Colonies, Louisiana, Quebec, Britain, and France. Very few eventually returned to Nova Scotia. During the various stages of the expulsion, Acadian and Native resistance to the British grew stronger.
During the expulsion, French Officer Charles Deschamps de Boishébert led the Miꞌkmaq and the Acadians in a guerrilla war against the British. According to Louisbourg records, by late 1756, the French regularly gave supplies to 700 Native people.
Raids on Annapolis (Fort Anne)
The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq fought in the Annapolis area. They won the Battle of Bloody Creek (1757). Acadians being deported from Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia on the ship Pembroke rebelled against the British crew. After fighting off an attack by another British ship on February 9, 1756, the Acadians took 8 British prisoners to Quebec.
In December 1757, while cutting firewood near Fort Anne, Miꞌkmaw warriors captured John Weatherspoon. They took him to the mouth of the Miramichi River. From there, he was eventually sold or traded to the French and taken to Quebec. He was held until late 1759, when General Wolfe's forces won the Battle of the Plains of Abraham.
About 50 or 60 Acadians who escaped the first deportation went to the Cape Sable region (which included southwestern Nova Scotia). From there, they took part in many raids on Lunenburg, Nova Scotia.
Raids on Piziquid (Fort Edward)
In April 1757, a group of Acadian and Miꞌkmaq raided a warehouse near Fort Edward, killing thirteen British soldiers. After taking what supplies they could carry, they set fire to the building. A few days later, the same group also raided Fort Cumberland.
Because of the strength of the Acadian militia and Miꞌkmaw fighters, British officer John Knox wrote that "In the year 1757 we were said to be Masters of the province of Nova Scotia, or Acadia, which, however, was only an imaginary possession…" He also stated that the situation in the province was so dangerous for the British that the "troops and inhabitants" at Fort Edward, Fort Sackville, and Lunenburg "could not be reputed in any other light than as prisoners."
Raids on Chignecto (Fort Cumberland)

The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq also resisted in the Chignecto region. They won the Battle of Petitcodiac (1755). In the spring of 1756, a group gathering wood from Fort Monckton (formerly Fort Gaspareaux) was ambushed. In April 1757, after raiding Fort Edward, the same group of Acadian and Miꞌkmaw fighters raided Fort Cumberland, killing two men and taking two prisoners. On July 20, 1757, Miꞌkmaq killed 23 and captured two of Gorham's rangers outside Fort Cumberland near present-day Jolicure, New Brunswick.
In March 1758, forty Acadian and Miꞌkmaq attacked a schooner at Fort Cumberland and killed its captain and two sailors. In the winter of 1759, the Miꞌkmaq ambushed five British soldiers on patrol while they were crossing a bridge near Fort Cumberland. On the night of April 4, 1759, using canoes, a force of Acadians and French captured a transport ship. At dawn, they attacked the ship Moncton and chased it for five hours down the Bay of Fundy. Although the Moncton escaped, its crew had one killed and two wounded.
Others resisted during the St. John River Campaign and the Petitcodiac River Campaign.
Raids on Lawrencetown (1757-1759)

By June 1757, settlers had to be completely removed from Lawrencetown (started in 1754). This was because the many Native raids eventually stopped settlers from leaving their homes. On July 30, 1757, Miꞌkmaw fighters killed three Roger's Rangers at Lawrencetown.
In nearby Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, in the spring of 1759, there was another Miꞌkmaw attack on Eastern Battery, where five soldiers were killed.
Raids on Maine
In present-day Maine, the Miꞌkmaq and the Maliseet raided many New England villages. In late April 1755, they raided Gorham, Maine, killing two men and a family. Next, they appeared in New-Boston (Gray) and nearby towns, destroying farms. On May 13, they raided Frankfort (Dresden), where two men were killed and a house burned. The same day, they raided Sheepscot (Newcastle) and took five prisoners. Two were killed in North Yarmouth on May 29, and one was captured. They shot one person at Teconnet. They took prisoners at Fort Halifax; two prisoners were taken at Fort Shirley (Dresden). They captured two people at New Gloucester while they worked on the local fort.
On August 13, 1758, Boishebert left Miramichi, New Brunswick with 400 soldiers, including Acadians he led from Port Toulouse. They marched to Fort St George (Thomaston, Maine) and Munduncook (Friendship, Maine). While the attack on Fort St George failed, in the raid on Munduncook, they wounded eight British settlers and killed others. This was Boishébert's last Acadian expedition. From there, Boishebert and the Acadians went to Quebec and fought in the Battle of Quebec (1759).
Raids on Lunenburg

The Acadians and Miꞌkmaq raided the Lunenburg settlement nine times over three years during the war. Boishebert ordered the first Raid on Lunenburg (1756). After the 1756 raid, in 1757, there was a raid on Lunenburg where six people from the Brissang family were killed. The next year, the Lunenburg Campaign (1758) began with a raid on the Lunenburg Peninsula at the Northwest Range (present-day Blockhouse, Nova Scotia). Five people from the Ochs and Roder families were killed. By the end of May 1758, most people on the Lunenburg Peninsula left their farms and went to the safety of the forts around Lunenburg town. This meant they missed the planting season for their crops. For those who did not leave their farms, the number of raids increased.
During the summer of 1758, there were four raids on the Lunenburg Peninsula. On July 13, 1758, one person on the LaHave River at Dayspring was killed and another seriously wounded. The next raid happened at Mahone Bay, Nova Scotia on August 24, 1758, when eight Miꞌkmaq attacked the homes of the Lay and Brant families. They killed three people. Two days later, two soldiers were killed in a raid on the blockhouse at LaHave, Nova Scotia. Almost two weeks later, on September 11, a child was killed in a raid on the Northwest Range. Another raid happened on March 27, 1759, where three members of the Oxner family were killed. The last raid happened on April 20, 1759. The Miꞌkmaq killed four settlers at Lunenburg from the Trippeau and Crighton families.
Raids on Halifax (1757-1759)
Acadian Pierre Gautier, son of Joseph-Nicolas Gautier, led Miꞌkmaw warriors from Louisbourg on three raids against Halifax in 1757. In each raid, Gautier took prisoners. The last raid happened in September. Gautier and four Miꞌkmaq killed two British men at the bottom of Citadel Hill.
Four companies of Rogers' Rangers (500 rangers) arrived on the provincial ship King George. They were in Dartmouth from April 8 to May 28, waiting for the Siege of Louisbourg (1758). While there, they searched the woods to stop raids on the capital. Despite the Rangers' presence, in April, the Miꞌkmaq returned 7 prisoners to Louisbourg.
In July 1759, Miꞌkmaq and Acadians killed five British men in Dartmouth, across from McNabb's Island.
Siege of Louisbourg (1758)
Acadian fighters helped defend Louisbourg in 1757 and 1758. To prepare for a British attack on Louisbourg in 1757, all the tribes of the Wabanaki Confederacy were present, including Acadian fighters. When their efforts didn't lead to a result, fewer Miꞌkmaq and Acadians showed up the next year. This drop in numbers had happened before, like in the two attacks on Annapolis in 1744, where fewer Miꞌkmaq and Acadians appeared for the second attack after the first one failed.
New Englanders came ashore at Pointe Platee (Flat Point) during the 1745 Siege. In 1757 and again in 1758, the Native and Acadian fighters were placed at the possible landing beaches of Pointe Platee and Anse d la Cormorandiere (Kennington Cove).
In the Siege of Louisbourg (1758), Acadian and Miꞌkmaw fighters started arriving in Louisbourg around May 7, 1758. By the end of the month, 118 Acadians arrived, and about 30 Miꞌkmaq from Ile St. Jean and Miramichi. Boishebert arrived in June with 70 more Acadian fighters from Ile St. Jean and 60 Miꞌkmaw fighters. On June 2, the British ships arrived, and the fighters went to their defensive spots on the shore. The 200 British ships waited for six days for the right weather before attacking on June 8.
Four companies of Rogers' Rangers led by George Scott were the first to come ashore ahead of James Wolfe. The British landed at Anse de la Cormorandiere, and "continuous fire was poured upon the invaders." The Miꞌkmaw and Acadian fighters fought the Rangers until the Rangers were supported by Scott and James Wolfe, which made the fighters retreat. Seventy of the fighters were captured. The Miꞌkmaw and Acadian fighters killed 100 British, some of whom were wounded and drowned. On June 16, 50 Miꞌkmaq returned to the cove and took 5 sailors captive, firing at the other British marines.
On July 15, Boishebert arrived with Acadian and Miꞌkmaw fighters and attacked Captain Sutherland and the Rogers' Rangers stationed at Northeast harbor. When Scott and Wolfe's reinforcements arrived, 100 Rangers were sent to track them down. They only captured one Miꞌkmaw.
Battle at St. Aspinquid's Chapel

Stories say that at St. Aspinquid's Chapel in Point Pleasant Park, Halifax, Lahave Chief Paul Laurent and eleven others invited Shubenacadie Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope and five others to the chapel to talk about peace with the British.
Chief Paul Laurent had just arrived in Halifax after surrendering to the British at Fort Cumberland on February 29, 1760. In early March 1760, the two groups met and fought. Chief Laurent's group killed Cope and two others, while Chief Cope's group killed five of the British supporters. Soon after Cope's death, Miꞌkmaw chiefs signed a peace treaty in Halifax on March 10, 1760. Chief Laurent signed for the Lahave tribe, and a new chief, Claude Rene, signed for the Shubenacadie tribe.
Battle of Restigouche
About 1500 Acadian and Miꞌkmaw fighters gathered for the Battle of Restigouche. The Acadians arrived in about 20 schooners and small boats. Along with the French, they went upriver to draw the British fleet closer to the Acadian community of Pointe-à-la-Batterie. There, they were ready to launch a surprise attack on the English. The Acadians sank some of their ships to create a blockade, and the Acadian and Miꞌkmaq fired at the British ships. On June 27, the British managed to move just past the sunken ships. Once the British were close enough to the battery, they fired on it. This fight lasted all night and continued with breaks from June 28 to July 3, when the British took over Pointe à la Batterie, burning 150 to 200 buildings in the Acadian village.
The fighters retreated and regrouped with the French frigate Machault. They sank more schooners to create another blockade. They built two new batteries: one on the South shore at Pointe de la Mission (today Listuguj, Quebec), and one on the North shore at Pointe aux Sauvages (today Campbellton, New Brunswick). They created a blockade with schooners at Pointe aux Sauvages. On July 7, British commander Byron spent the day destroying the battery at Pointe aux Sauvages and later returned to destroying the Machault. By the morning of July 8, the Scarborough and the Repulse were close to the blockade and facing the Machault. The British tried twice to defeat the batteries, and the fighters held out. On the third try, they succeeded.
Halifax Treaties
The Mí'kmaq signed a series of peace and friendship treaties with Great Britain. The first was after Father Rale's War (1725). The Miꞌkmaq nation historically had seven districts. This was later expanded to eight with the addition of Great Britain at the time of the 1749 treaty.
Chief Jean-Baptiste Cope signed a Treaty of 1752 for the Shubenacadie Miꞌkmaq. After agreeing to several peace treaties, the 75-year period of war ended with the Halifax Treaties between the British and the Miꞌkmaq (1760-1761). (To remember these treaties, Nova Scotians celebrate Treaty Day every year on October 1.) Despite the treaties, the British kept building forts in the province (like Fort Ellis and Fort Belcher).
Historians have different ideas about what the Treaties mean. Historian Stephen Patterson says the Halifax Treaties created lasting peace because the Miꞌkmaq surrendered and chose to follow British laws through courts instead of fighting. Patterson says the Miꞌkmaq were not militarily strong after the French were defeated. He argues that without guns and ammunition, the Miꞌkmaq lost their ability to fight and hunt for food. As a result, the British could set the terms of the Treaties. Patterson believes the Halifax Treaties defined the relationship between the Miꞌkmaq and the British. While the Treaties didn't set specific laws for land and resources, they made sure both sides would follow future laws about these matters. The British accepted that existing Miꞌkmaw governments would continue to have a role, but under British rule.
Historian John G. Reid disagrees with the Treaties saying the Miꞌkmaq "submitted" to the British crown. He believes the Miꞌkmaq wanted a friendly and equal relationship. He bases his idea on what is known about the discussions around the treaties and later statements from the Miꞌkmaq. The Miꞌkmaw leaders who represented their people in the Halifax talks in 1760 had clear goals: to make peace, set up fair trade for things like furs, and start a lasting friendship with the British crown. In return, they offered their friendship and allowed some British settlement, but without giving up any land officially. To make the relationship fair, Reid argues that any more British settlement would need to be negotiated and involve giving gifts to the Miꞌkmaq. (Europeans had a long history of giving gifts to Miꞌkmaw people to be allowed on their land, starting from the very first contact.) The documents summarizing the peace agreements did not set clear land limits for British settlements. However, they promised the Miꞌkmaq access to the natural resources they had always used along the coasts and in the woods. Their ideas about land use were quite different. The Miꞌkmaq believed they could share the land, with the British growing crops, and their people hunting and getting seafood as usual.
American Revolution
As more New England Planters and United Empire Loyalists arrived in Mi'kmaki (the Maritimes), the Miꞌkmaq faced economic, environmental, and cultural pressures. The original meaning of the treaties began to fade. The Miꞌkmaq tried to make the British honor the treaties by threatening force.
At the start of the American Revolution, many Miꞌkmaw and Maliseet tribes supported the Americans against the British. The Treaty of Watertown, the first foreign treaty signed by the United States of America after the Declaration of Independence, was signed on July 19, 1776. This treaty created a military alliance between the United States and the St. John's and Miꞌkmaw First Nations in Nova Scotia. (These Miꞌkmaw delegates did not officially represent the Miꞌkmaw government, but many individual Miꞌkmaq did join the American army.)
Months after signing the treaty, they took part in the Maugerville Rebellion and the Battle of Fort Cumberland in November 1776.
During the St. John River expedition, Colonel Allan worked hard to get the Maliseet and Miꞌkmaq to support the American Revolution, and he had some success. Many Maliseet left the St. John River to join the American forces at Machias, Maine. On Sunday, July 13, 1777, a group of 400 to 500 men, women, and children, left in 128 canoes from the Old Fort Meduetic for Machias. This group arrived at a very good time for the Americans and helped greatly in defending that post during the attack by Sir George Collier on August 13–15. The British did only minor damage, and the Native people's help earned them thanks from the Massachusetts council.
In June 1779, Miꞌkmaq in the Miramichi attacked and robbed some British people in the area. The next month, British Captain Augustus Harvey, commanding HMS Viper, arrived and fought the Miꞌkmaq. One Miꞌkmaw was killed, and 16 were taken prisoner to Quebec. The prisoners were eventually brought to Halifax, where they were later released after signing an Oath of Loyalty to the British Crown on July 28, 1779.
The 1800s

As their military power became weaker in the early 1800s, the Miꞌkmaw people directly asked the British to honor the treaties. They reminded the British of their duty to give "presents" (like rent) to the Miꞌkmaq for using Miꞌkmaꞌki. In response, the British offered charity, or "relief," as government officials often called it. The British told the Miꞌkmaq they must change their way of life and start living on farms. They were also told to send their children to British schools for education.
The 1900s
In 1914, over 150 Miꞌkmaw men joined up during World War I. During the First World War, 34 out of 64 Miꞌkmaw men from Lennox Island First Nation, Prince Edward Island, joined the armed forces. They fought very well, especially in the Battle of Amiens. On March 11, 1916, James Glode of Liverpool River became the first Mi'kmaq to join the War. In 1939, World War II began, and over 250 Miꞌkmaq volunteered. In 1950, over 60 Miꞌkmaq joined to serve in the Korean War.
The Treaties, which the Miꞌkmaw fighters fought for during the colonial period, did not become legal until they were included in the Canadian Constitution in 1982. Every October 1, "Treaty Day" is now celebrated by Nova Scotians.
Notable Veterans
- Jean-Baptiste Cope
- Paul Laurent
- Étienne Bâtard
- Indian Joe
- Sam Gloade (born April 20, 1878), World War I, awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal, the British War Medal, and the Victory Medal
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