History of the Choctaw facts for kids

The Choctaw people are Native Americans who originally lived in parts of Mississippi and Alabama in the Southeastern United States. Some Choctaw people moved to Louisiana. Later, many were forced to move west to a place called Indian Territory, which is now Oklahoma. Today, Choctaw tribes have their main offices in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Oklahoma.

Ancient History

Where the Choctaw Came From

One Choctaw story tells that their people traveled from the West a long, long time ago, along with the Chickasaw people. Experts who study languages believe the Choctaw and Chickasaw languages became separate from their main language group around the year 800 CE.

Another story passed down through generations says that the Choctaw people came from a special cave near Nanih Waiya. This place, called "the leaning mound," is a large platform mound located by the Pearl River near Noxapater, Mississippi.

The Mississippian Culture

Between 800 and 1500 CE, during a time known as the Mississippian era, some ancestors of the Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Chakchiuma peoples might have been part of a large community called Moundville. Moundville was the second-largest community of the Mississippian culture. It was in central Alabama and was very active from about 1000 to 1450 CE. As Moundville began to break apart in the 1400s, early Choctaw people moved south. They started the Burial Urn culture and spread out, with many living in the fertile lands of Alabama and western Mississippi.

The Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere was a big network for religion, culture, and trade. It was centered along the Mississippi River valley and covered much of the central, eastern, and southeastern parts of what is now the United States.

When the Spanish first explored inland from the Gulf of Mexico in the 1500s, they met some of these Mississippian communities.

First European Contact

After a Spanish explorer named Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca returned to Spain, he told the King and Queen that the New World was very rich. Because of this, Hernando de Soto was chosen to lead the first big Spanish trip into North America. From 1540 to 1543, de Soto traveled through areas that are now Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. These were the lands where the Choctaw would later live.

De Soto had a very strong army. As news of his harsh actions spread, ancestors of the Choctaw fought back. The Battle of Mabila was a surprise attack planned by Chief Tuskaloosa. This battle was a major turning point for de Soto's journey, and his army never fully recovered.

Hernando de Soto, leading his well-equipped Spanish explorers, met the Choctaws in 1540. He was a very wealthy man. He took a chief named Tuskaloosa as a hostage, asking for people to carry supplies and women. He got the carriers right away. Tuskaloosa said the women would be waiting in Mabila (Mobile). The chief did not mention that he had also called his warriors to Mabila. On October 18, 1540, de Soto entered the town and was welcomed. The Choctaws shared food and danced with him, then they attacked him.

—Bob Ferguson-Choctaw Chronology

Choctaw History

The Choctaw Nation Forms (1600s)

Historians don't have all the details about the time between 1567 and 1699. It seems some Mississippian towns were left empty before the 1600s. Similarities in pottery and burial styles suggest how the unique Choctaw society came to be.

According to Patricia Galloway, people from the Bottle Creek Indian Mounds area in Mobile, Alabama, slowly moved into the Choctaw region of Mississippi. This area was between the Yazoo basin to the north and the Natchez bluffs to the south. They were joined by people from Moundville (near Tuscaloosa, Alabama), which had started to break apart. These groups moved west, joining with the Plaquemine people and other "prairie people." Over several generations, these groups combined to form a new society known as the Choctaw.

Other scholars note that Choctaw oral history tells of a long journey to Mississippi from west of the Mississippi River.

In 1718, the French renamed Bulbancha, which means "place of many tongues" in Choctaw, to New Orleans.

The historian Patricia Galloway believes that the Choctaw did not exist as one unified culture before the 1600s. Instead, different groups from the Southeast, including parts of the Moundville, Plaquemine, and other Mississippian cultures, came together to form the Choctaw people. The Choctaw's traditional homeland included Nanih Waiya, a special earthwork mound in Winston County, Mississippi. They considered this place sacred. Their land was bordered by the Tombigbee River to the east, the Pearl River to the north and west, and the Leaf-Pascagoula river system to the south.

While Nanih Waiya mound was a ceremonial center, Native Americans visited it during the Mississippian culture period. From the 1600s onward, the Choctaw lived in this area and honored Nanih Waiya as the place where their people began. Their stories included tales of traveling to this site from west of the great river, which is believed to be the Mississippi River.

In 1758, French explorer Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz wrote that when he asked the Choctaw where they came from, they said they "had come out from under the earth." This was likely a way to explain their sudden appearance, not a literal creation story.

A people who are very different from other Native Americans... they are the Chactaws, more commonly known as the Flatheads. These people are the only nation from whom I could learn any idea of a traditional account of a first origin; and that is their coming out of a hole in the ground, which they show between their nation and the Chicsaws; they tell us also that their neighbors were surprised at seeing a people rise at once out of the earth.

—Bernard Romans- Natural History of East and West Florida

In the early 1800s, Choctaw storytellers said their people came from either the Nanih Waiya mound or a cave. Another story describes their journey from the west, beyond the Mississippi River. They were guided by their leader, who used a sacred red pole.

The Choctaws, many winters ago, started moving from their country far to the west of the great river and the mountains of snow. They traveled for many years. A great medicine man led them, placing a red pole in the ground each night where they camped. Every morning, this pole leaned to the east. He told them they must keep traveling east until the pole stood straight in their camp. There, the Great Spirit had told them they should live.

—George Catlin- Smithsonian Report

French Contact (1682)

In 1682, La Salle was the first French explorer to travel along the Mississippi River in the Southeast. His group did not meet the Choctaw, but they set up a post along the Arkansas River. This showed the English that the French were serious about settling in the South.

The first direct meeting between the Choctaw and the French was with Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville in 1699. Before this, the Choctaw likely traded with English traders through other tribes like the Muscogee Creek and Chickasaw. The Choctaw, along with other tribes, formed friendships with French settlers in New France and Louisiana. The Choctaw mainly allied with the French to protect themselves from attacks by other Native American tribes. These tribes were often allied with English colonists in Carolina and would capture people for forced labor.

The historian Greg O'Brien noted that the Choctaw had three main political and geographic areas. During the colonial period, these areas sometimes had different alliances with French, Spanish, and English traders. These alliances often depended on how close they were to a trading partner. These differences also showed up during and after the American Revolutionary War. Each area had a main chief, and smaller chiefs led towns within that area. The chiefs met in a National Council, but decisions were often made at the town level.

Before the Seven Years' War, the French were the main trading partners for the Choctaw. They had settled in the Mobile and New Orleans areas of La Louisiane. The British had mostly settled along the Atlantic Coast. Trade disagreements between the eastern and western Choctaw groups led to the Choctaw Civil War, which lasted from 1747 to 1750. The pro-French eastern group won this conflict.

After losing the Seven Years' War, France gave its land east of the Mississippi River to Britain in 1763. From 1763 to 1781, Britain became the Choctaw's main European trading partner. Spanish forces were in New Orleans by 1766, after taking over French land west of the Mississippi. The western Choctaw sometimes traded with them there. Spain declared war against Great Britain in 1779, during the American Revolution.

Relations with the United States

The American Revolutionary War

During the American Revolution, different Choctaw groups chose to support either Britain or Spain. Some Choctaw warriors from the western and eastern areas helped the British defend Mobile, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. Chief Franchimastabé led a group of Choctaw warriors with British forces against American rebels in Natchez. The Americans had left, but the Choctaw stayed in Natchez for weeks and convinced people to remain loyal to Britain.

Other Choctaw groups joined George Washington's army and served throughout the war. Historian Bob Ferguson noted that "Choctaw scouts served under Washington, Morgan, Wayne and Sullivan."

More than 1,000 Choctaw fought for Britain, mostly against Spain's efforts along the Gulf Coast. At the same time, many Choctaw helped Spain.

After the American Revolution

After the Revolution, Chief Franchimastabé went to Savannah, Georgia, to make sure the Choctaw could trade with the Americans. In the following years, some Choctaw scouts helped U.S. General Anthony Wayne in the Northwest Indian War in Ohio.

George Washington (the first U.S. President) and Henry Knox (the first U.S. Secretary of War) wanted Native Americans to adopt European-American ways of life. Washington believed that if Native Americans owned private property, built homes, farmed, educated their children, and became Christians, they would be accepted by white Americans. Thomas Jefferson continued this idea. Historian Robert Remini wrote that they thought "these Native Americans would win acceptance from white Americans."

Washington's plan included treating Native Americans fairly, regulating land purchases, promoting trade, and encouraging them to adopt new ways of life. The government sent agents, like Benjamin Hawkins, to live among the Southeast Indians and teach them. Hawkins lived among the Choctaw for almost 30 years and married a Choctaw woman named Lavinia Downs.

The Choctaw had a matrilineal system, meaning property and leadership passed through the mother's family. Children were part of their mother's family and clan. In the late 1700s and early 1800s, many Scots-Irish traders lived among the Choctaw and married women from important families. Choctaw chiefs saw these marriages as ways to build stronger relationships with Americans. The children of these marriages were considered Choctaw first. Some sons went to Anglo-American schools and became important interpreters and negotiators for the Choctaw.

Whereas it has become very important to warn the citizens of the United States against breaking the treaties made at Hopewell... between the United States and the Cherokee, Choctaw, and Chickasaw nations of Indians... I now require all officers of the United States, both civilian and military, and all other citizens and residents, to follow these treaties and laws, or they will face consequences.

—George Washington, Proclamation Regarding Treaties, Regarding Treaties with the Cherokee, Choctaw and Chickasaw, 1790.

The Hopewell Treaty (1786)

In October 1785, Taboca, a Choctaw leader, led over 125 Choctaws to the Keowee River, near Seneca Old Town (now Hopewell, South Carolina). After two months of travel, they met with U.S. representatives. They performed important Choctaw ceremonies, like the eagle tail dance, which symbolized peace. Choctaw women would adopt and name the American commissioners as family. Smoking a shared pipe sealed the agreements between the peoples.

After these rituals, the Choctaw asked John Woods to live with them to help with communication. In return, Taboca was allowed to visit the United States Congress. On January 3, 1786, the Treaty of Hopewell was signed. Article 11 stated that "the hatchet shall be forever buried, and the peace... and friendship re-established between the said states on the one part, and all the Choctaw nation on the other part, shall be universal."

The treaty required the Choctaw to return people who had escaped forced labor to colonists. It also required them to hand over any Choctaw convicted of crimes by the U.S., set borders between the U.S. and the Choctaw Nation, and return any property taken from colonists during the Revolutionary War.

In the early 1800s, President Thomas Jefferson considered a Choctaw idea to pay off debts to traders by selling land to the United States.

We have long heard of your nation as a numerous, peaceful, and friendly people; but this is the first visit we have had from its great men at the seat of our government. I welcome you here; am glad to take you by the hand, and to assure you, for your nation, that we are their friends. Born in the same land, we ought to live as brothers... It is at your request... that I listen to your proposition to sell us lands. You say you owe a great debt to your merchants, that you have nothing to pay it with but lands, and you pray us to take lands, and pay your debt. The sum you have occasion for, brothers, is a very great one. We have never yet paid as much to any of our red brethren for the purchase of lands...

—President Thomas Jefferson, Brothers of the Choctaw Nation, December 17, 1803

After the Revolutionary War, the Choctaw were careful about allying with countries against the United States. John Swanton later wrote that "the Choctaw were never at war with the Americans." A few were convinced by Tecumseh (a Shawnee leader) to join the hostile Creeks, but the Choctaw Nation as a whole stayed out of anti-American alliances because of Apushmataha, a great Choctaw chief.

The War of 1812

In early 1811, the Shawnee leader Tecumseh tried to unite Native American tribes to remove U.S. settlers from the Northwest. Tecumseh met with Choctaw leaders to convince them to join his alliance. Pushmataha, a respected Choctaw leader, strongly disagreed with Tecumseh's plan. He argued that the Choctaw and their neighbors, the Chickasaw, had always lived peacefully with European Americans. They had learned valuable skills and technologies and had fair trade. The Choctaw-Chickasaw council voted against joining Tecumseh. Pushmataha warned Tecumseh that he would fight against anyone who fought the United States.

Before the War of 1812, Governor William C. C. Claiborne of Louisiana asked the Choctaws to stay out of this "white man's war." However, the Choctaw did get involved. Pushmataha led the Choctaw in an alliance with the U.S. He argued against the Creek Red Sticks' alliance with Britain after a terrible event at Fort Mims. Pushmataha traveled to St. Stephens, Alabama, in mid-1813 to offer an alliance with U.S. forces and recruit Choctaw warriors. He was commissioned as a military officer in the United States Army.

Pushmataha joined the U.S. Army under General Ferdinand Claiborne in mid-November. About 125 Choctaw warriors helped attack Creek forces at Kantachi on December 23, 1813. After this victory, more Choctaw volunteered. By February 1814, Pushmataha commanded a larger Choctaw force and joined General Andrew Jackson to clear Creek lands near Pensacola, Florida. After the final defeat of the Creek at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend in 1814, many Choctaw left. By the Battle of New Orleans, only a small group of Choctaw and Chickasaw warriors remained with Jackson's force. A warrior named Pierre Juzan led Choctaw warriors who ambushed and harassed the British, causing significant trouble for them.

The Treaty of Doak's Stand (1820)

In October 1820, Andrew Jackson and Thomas Hinds represented the United States to negotiate a treaty. This treaty would require the Choctaw to give up some of their land in Mississippi. They met with chiefs and leaders, including Chief Pushmataha, at Doak's Stand.

Finally Jackson resorted to threats and a temper tantrum to gain their consent. He warned them of the loss of American friendship; he promised to wage war against them and destroy the Nation; finally he shouted his determination to remove them whether they liked it or not.

—Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson

The meeting began on October 10. Pushmataha accused Jackson of misleading them about the quality of land west of the Mississippi. Pushmataha said, "I know the country well... The grass is everywhere very short... There are but few beavers, and the honey and fruit are rare things." Jackson used threats, which pressured the Choctaws to sign the treaty. Pushmataha insisted that "no alteration shall be made in the boundaries of the portion of our territory that will remain, until the Choctaw people are sufficiently progressed in the arts of civilization to become citizens of the States." Jackson agreed to this idea of American citizenship. On October 18, the Treaty of Doak's Stand was signed.

Article 4 of the treaty prepared Choctaws to become U.S. citizens by becoming "civilized." This article later influenced Article 14 in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek.

ARTICLE 4. The boundaries hereby established between the Choctaw Indians and the United States, on this side of the Mississippi river, shall remain without alteration until the period at which said nation shall become so civilized and enlightened as to be made citizens of the United States...

—Treaty with the Choctaw, 1820

Talks with the U.S. Government (1820s)

Apuckshunubbee, Pushmataha, and Mosholatubbee, the main chiefs of the three Choctaw areas, led a group to Washington City (now Washington, D.C.). They wanted to discuss problems with European Americans settling on Choctaw lands. They hoped to have the settlers removed or get money for the land they lost. The group included other important Choctaw leaders and the U.S. interpreter, Major John Pitchlynn. Apuckshunubbee died in Maysville, Kentucky, before reaching Washington.

Pushmataha met with President James Monroe and spoke to Secretary of War John C. Calhoun. He reminded them of the long friendship between the U.S. and the Choctaw. He said, "I can say and tell the truth that no Choctaw ever drew his bow against the United States... My nation has given of their country until it is very small. We are in trouble." On January 20, 1825, Choctaw chiefs signed the Treaty of Washington City, giving more land to the United States.

Pushmataha died in Washington from a breathing illness before the group returned home. He was given full U.S. military burial honors at the Congressional Cemetery.

The loss of these two strong leaders was a big blow to the Choctaw Nation. However, younger leaders, some educated in American schools, began to emerge. The Choctaw continued to adapt to new ways, adopting some technology and housing styles. They also accepted missionaries to their people. They hoped to be accepted by the Mississippi and national governments to stop people from taking their lands. In 1825, the National Council approved starting the Choctaw Academy to educate their young men. The school was in Kentucky until 1842, when it moved to the Choctaw Nation in Indian Territory after most of the tribe was moved. There, they founded the Spencer Academy in 1844.

When Andrew Jackson became president in 1828, many Choctaw realized that they would likely be forced to move. They continued to adopt useful European practices but faced constant pressure from Jackson and settlers to give up their lands.

The 1830 Election and Treaty

In March 1830, the division chiefs stepped down. The National Council then elected Greenwood LeFlore, chief of the western division, as Principal Chief of the nation. This was the first time such a position was created, and it was to negotiate with the U.S. government. LeFlore believed that moving was unavoidable. He hoped to protect the rights of Choctaw people in Indian Territory and Mississippi. He wrote a treaty and sent it to Washington, D.C. There was much disagreement among the Choctaw, but the chiefs had decided they could not fight back with weapons.

The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek (1830)

At Andrew Jackson's request, the United States Congress debated a bill to move Native Americans. The bill passed by a very close vote. Jackson signed it into law on June 30, 1830, and then focused on the Choctaw in Mississippi Territory.

To the voters of Mississippi. Fellow Citizens:-I have fought for you, I have been by your own act, made a citizen of your state;... According to your laws I am an American citizen,... I have always battled on the side of this republic... I have been told by my white brethren, that the pen of history is impartial, and that in after years, our forlorn kindred will have justice and "mercy too"... I wish you would elect me a member to the next Congress of the [United] States.

—Mushulatubba, Christian Mirror and N.H. Observer, July 1830.

On August 25, 1830, the Choctaw were supposed to meet with Andrew Jackson. However, Greenwood Leflore, a Choctaw chief, told Secretary of War John H. Eaton that his warriors strongly opposed attending. President Jackson was upset. Jackson then sent Secretary of War Eaton and General John Coffee to meet with the Choctaws at Dancing Rabbit Creek near Noxubee, Mississippi Territory.

Say to them as friends and brothers to listen [to] the voice of their father, & friend. Where [they] now are, they and my white children are too near each other to live in harmony & peace... It is their white brothers and my wishes for them to remove beyond the Mississippi, it [contains] the [best] advice to both the Choctaws and Chickasaws, whose happiness... will certainly be promoted by removing... There... their children can live upon [it as] long as grass grows or water runs... It shall be theirs forever... and all who wish to remain as citizens [shall have] reservations laid out to cover [their improv]ements; and the justice due [from a] father to his red children will [be awarded to] them. [Again I] beg you, tell them to listen. [The plan proposed] is the only one by which [they can be] perpetuated as a nation... I am very respectfully your friend, & the friend of my Choctaw and Chickasaw brethren. Andrew Jackson.

—Andrew Jackson to the Choctaw & Chickasaw Nations, 1829.

The U.S. representatives met with the chiefs and leaders on September 15, 1830, at Dancing Rabbit Creek. In a lively atmosphere, they tried to explain the plan to move the Choctaw to an audience of 6,000 people. The Choctaws had to choose between moving or becoming U.S. citizens under U.S. law. The treaty required them to give up their remaining traditional homeland to the United States. However, a part of the treaty made the move more acceptable.

ART. XIV. Each Choctaw head of a family being desirous to remain and become a citizen of the States, shall be permitted to do so, by signifying his intention to the Agent within six months from the ratification of this Treaty, and he or she shall thereupon be entitled to a reservation of one section of six hundred and forty acres of land...

—Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, 1830

On September 27, 1830, the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed. This was one of the largest land transfers between the U.S. Government and Native Americans that did not involve war. By this treaty, the Choctaw gave up their remaining traditional homelands, opening them for European-American settlement. Article 14 allowed some Choctaw to stay in Mississippi, and nearly 1,300 chose to do so. They were one of the first large non-European groups to become U.S. citizens. Article 22 aimed to have a Choctaw representative in the U.S. House of Representatives. At this important time, the Choctaw split into two distinct groups: the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma and the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. The Oklahoma nation kept its self-governance, but the tribe in Mississippi followed state and federal laws.

The Removal Era

After giving up nearly 11 million acres (45,000 km²), the Choctaw moved in three stages: in the fall of 1831, in 1832, and finally in 1833. Nearly 15,000 Choctaws moved to what would be called Indian Territory and later Oklahoma. About 2,500 people died along the journey, known as the Trail of Tears. The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was approved by the U.S. Senate on February 25, 1831. Principal Chief George W. Harkins wrote a farewell letter to the American people before the removals began, which was widely published.

It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw... We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free...

—George W. Harkins, George W. Harkins to the American People

Alexis de Tocqueville, a famous French thinker, saw the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1831:

In the whole scene there was an air of ruin and destruction, something which betrayed a final and irrevocable adieu; one couldn't watch without feeling one's heart wrung. The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn. There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. "To be free," he answered, could never get any other reason out of him. We... watch the expulsion... of one of the most celebrated and ancient American peoples.

—Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America

About 4,000–6,000 Choctaw remained in Mississippi in 1831 after the first moves. The U.S. agent, William Ward, who was in charge of registering Choctaw people in Mississippi under Article XIV, strongly opposed their treaty rights. Although estimates suggested 5,000 Choctaw stayed in Mississippi, only 143 family heads (276 adults) received land under Article 14. For the next ten years, the Choctaws in Mississippi faced increasing legal problems, unfair treatment, and threats. The Choctaws described their situation in 1849: "we have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been treated very badly, until by such treatment some of our best men have died." Joseph B. Cobb, who moved to Mississippi, described the Choctaw as having "no nobility or virtue at all." Moving continued throughout the 1800s and 1900s. In 1846, 1,000 Choctaw moved, and in 1903, another 300 Mississippi Choctaw were convinced to move to the Nation in Oklahoma. By 1930, only 1,665 remained in Mississippi.

I do certify that the foregoing persons did apply to me as agent to have their names registered to remain five years and become citizens of the States before the 24th (August) 1831.

—William Ward, 1831, Col. William Wards Register

Before the Civil War (1840)

Choctaw chief Greenwood LeFlore stayed in Mississippi after the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek was signed and most of the tribe moved. He became a U.S. citizen, a successful businessman, and a state politician. He was elected as a Mississippi state representative and later as a senator. He was a well-known figure in Mississippi society and became a friend of Jefferson Davis. He served two terms in the state house and one term as a state senator. LeFlore spoke in Choctaw and asked the Senate floor which was better understood in the region, Latin or Choctaw.

During the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), the Choctaw agency at Fort Smith, Arkansas, collected $170 and sent it to help starving Irish people. The Arkansas Intelligencer reported that "all subscribed, agents, missionaries, traders and Indians, a considerable portion of which fund was made up by the latter."

It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation... It was an amazing gesture. By today's standards, it might be a million dollars", according to Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma's newspaper, Bishinik, based at the Oklahoma Choctaw tribal headquarters in Durant, Oklahoma.

To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people walked the Trail of Tears. In the late 1900s, Irish President Mary Robinson praised the donation. On June 18, 2017, the Kindred Spirits memorial, a sculpture of steel feathers, was unveiled in Midleton, County Cork. A Choctaw group, including Chief Gary Batton and Assistant Chief Jack Austin Jr., attended the ceremony. On March 12, 2018, the Irish Taoiseach Leo Varadkar announced a new scholarship program for Choctaw students to study in Ireland. In the spring of 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, an Irish charity raised over $1.8 million to support the struggling Navajo and Hopi Nations as a way to repay the Choctaws' donation.

For the Choctaw who stayed in or returned to Mississippi after 1855, life became harder. Many lost their lands and money to dishonest white people. The state of Mississippi did not allow Choctaw people to participate in government. Most were isolated because they understood little English, making it hard to work in mainstream society. Also, European Americans classified them as free people of color and kept them out of segregated white schools. The state had no public schools for anyone until after the Reconstruction era.

Choctaws... were at the mercy of the whites who could commit crimes against them without fear of the law. Even black people forced into labor had more legal rights than did the Choctaws during this period.

—Charles Hudson- The Southeastern Indians

1853 World's Fair

In May 1853, Choctaws traveled from Mobile, Alabama, to Boston and New York. They were going to take part in America's "first" world's fair: Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations.

CHOCTAW INDIANS FOR THE CRYSTAL PALACE.—Capt. Post... states that... he spoke the brig Pembroke, from, Mobile for New-York, having on board a company of Choctaw Indians, for exhibition at the Crystal Palace.

THE CHOCTAW INDIANS.—Each succeeding performance of these interesting aborigines prove. that they are increasing in popularity with our citizens. Their delineations of the "Great Ball Play," drew down the applauds of the house. They appear this evening and to-morrow, after which they quit Brooklyn, wending their way homewards. The Brooklyn Museum is not half large enough to contain the crowds that flock nightly to its doors. There will be afternoon performances this day and to-morrow, to accommodate the young folks.

CHOCTAW INDIANS.—These wonderful and thrilling Exhibitions are attracting intense interest. The crowds that see them, go away astonished and delighted with valuable information. Among the Company are Hoocha, their chief, aged 58 years; Teschu the Medicine man, aged 58; and Silver smith. This is the greatest opportunity ever given to the New-Yorkers to obtain a full idea of Indian life.

The GREAT BALL PLAY, and the grand exciting WAR DANCE, will be exhibited this Evening, with other Dances and Songs of great interest. At the Assembly Rooms, Broadway, above Howard-st. Doors open at 7. Exercises to commence at 8. Admission 25 cents. Reserved Seats 50 cents.

The American Civil War (1861)

Further information: Choctaw in the American Civil War

Both the Indian Territory and Mississippi Choctaws in the American Civil War allied with the Confederate States of America. They signed a treaty in July 1861, which promised the Choctaw and Chickasaw nations self-governance. Historian Horatio B. Cushman wrote that the "United States abandoned the Choctaws and Chickasaws" when Confederate troops entered their nation. After the Confederacy's defeat, the Choctaw Nation in Indian Territory signed a Reconstruction Treaty in 1866. This treaty gave the western part of their lands to the United States.

After the Civil War (1865)

Mississippi Choctaw Life

From about 1865 to 1914, Mississippi Choctaws were largely ignored by government, health, and education services. They became less visible to the wider world. After the Civil War, their problems were pushed aside as former Confederates, freedmen (formerly enslaved people), and Union supporters struggled. Few records exist about the Mississippi Choctaw during this time. They had no legal protection and were often threatened by local white people who wanted to re-establish white supremacy. They chose to live separately and continued their traditional culture.

After the Reconstruction era ended and conservative Democrats regained power in the late 1870s, white state lawmakers passed Jim Crow laws. These laws created legal separation by race. They also made it very hard for freedmen and Native Americans to vote through the new Mississippi constitution of 1890. This constitution changed voter registration rules to discriminate against both groups. White lawmakers effectively divided society into two groups: white and "colored." They classified Mississippi Choctaw and other Native Americans as "colored." This meant the Choctaw faced racial separation and were excluded from public places, just like freedmen and their descendants. The Choctaw were not white, had no land, and had very little legal protection.

Because the state relied on farming, most landless men earned a living by becoming sharecroppers. The women made and sold traditional hand-woven baskets. Choctaw sharecropping decreased after World War II as large farms started using machines, which meant fewer workers were needed.

The Choctaw Nation in Oklahoma

The Confederacy's loss also affected the Choctaw Nation. Before being moved, some Choctaw had interacted with African people in Mississippi, and the wealthiest had acquired people for forced labor. The Choctaw who developed larger farms adopted this system of forced labor, similar to European Americans, to get enough workers. During the time before the Civil War, enslaved Black people had more formal legal protection under United States law than the Choctaw did. Moshulatubbee, a chief, held people in forced labor, as did many Europeans who married into the Choctaw nation. The Choctaw took people they had enslaved with them to Indian Territory during the removal. They continued this system until 1866. After the Civil War, treaties with the United States required them to free the people they had enslaved within their Nation. For those who chose to stay, they were offered full citizenship and rights. These formerly enslaved people of the Choctaw Nation were called the Choctaw Freedmen. After much discussion, the Choctaw Nation granted Choctaw Freedmen citizenship in 1885. In post-war treaties, the U.S. government also gained land in the western part of the territory and rights for railroads to be built across Indian Territory. Choctaw chief, Allen Wright, suggested Oklahoma (meaning "red man," from the Choctaw words okla "man" and humma "red") as the name for a territory created from Indian Territory in 1890.

Improved transportation from the railroads increased pressure on the Choctaw Nation. It brought large-scale mining and timber businesses, which added to tribal income. But the railroads and industries also attracted European-American settlers, including new immigrants to the United States.

To encourage Native Americans to adopt American ways of life, the Curtis Act of 1898 ended tribal governments. It also proposed ending communal, tribal lands. The U.S. suggested ending tribal lands held in common and giving individual plots of land to tribal members. The U.S. declared land beyond what registered households needed to be "surplus" and sold it to new European-American settlers. Individual ownership also meant Native Americans could sell their plots. This allowed new settlers to buy land from those Native Americans who wanted to sell. The U.S. government set up the Dawes Commission to manage this land policy. It registered tribal members and assigned lands.

Starting in 1894, the Dawes Commission registered Choctaw and other families in Indian Territory. This was so former tribal lands could be divided among them. The final list included 18,981 citizens of the Choctaw Nation, 1,639 Mississippi Choctaw, and 5,994 former enslaved people (and their descendants), mostly held by Choctaws in the Indian/Oklahoma Territory. The Dawes Rolls became important records for proving tribal membership. After land allotments were finished, the U.S. proposed ending the tribal governments of the Five Civilized Tribes and admitting the two territories together as one state.

From Territory to Oklahoma Statehood (1889)

The creation of Oklahoma Territory after the Civil War required the Five Civilized Tribes, who had supported the Confederacy, to give up land. The government used railroad access to the Oklahoma Territory to encourage development. The Indian Appropriations Bill of 1889 included an amendment that allowed President Benjamin Harrison to open two million acres (8,000 km²) of Oklahoma Territory for settlement. This led to the Land Run of 1889. The Choctaw Nation was overwhelmed with new settlers and could not control their activities. In the late 1800s, Choctaws often suffered from violent crimes and assaults from both white settlers and other Choctaws. Strong disagreements divided the traditional "Nationalists" and the "Progressives" who favored adopting American ways.

In 1905, representatives of the Five Civilized Tribes met at the Sequoyah Constitutional Convention to write a constitution for a state controlled by Native Americans. They wanted Indian Territory to be admitted as the State of Sequoyah. Although they presented a detailed plan to Washington, D.C., representatives from eastern states opposed it. They did not want two western states created in the area, fearing both would be controlled by Democrats. President Theodore Roosevelt, a Republican, decided that the Oklahoma and Indian territories had to be admitted together as one state, Oklahoma. To do this, tribal governments had to end, and all residents had to accept state government. Many leading Native American representatives from the Sequoyah Convention participated in the new state convention. Its constitution was based on many ideas from the State of Sequoyah's proposed constitution.

In 1906, the U.S. ended the governments of the Five Civilized Tribes. This was part of ongoing discussions between Native Americans and European Americans about the best plans for the future. The Choctaw Nation continued to protect resources not covered by treaties or laws. On November 16, 1907, Oklahoma became the 46th state.

Mississippi Choctaw Delegation to Washington (1914)

By 1907, the Mississippi Choctaw were in danger of disappearing as a recognized group. The Dawes Commission had sent many Mississippi Choctaws to Indian Territory, and only 1,253 members remained. Meetings were held in April and May 1913 to find a solution. Wesley Johnson was elected chief of the newly formed Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana Choctaw Council at the May 1913 meeting. The council chose delegates to send to Washington, D.C., to bring attention to their difficult situation. Historian Robert Bruce Ferguson wrote in his 2015 article:

In late January 1914, Chief Wesley Johnson and his delegates (Culbertson Davis and Emil John) traveled to Washington, D. C.... While they were in Washington, Johnson, Davis, and John met with numerous senators & representatives and persuaded the federals to bring the Choctaw case before Congress. On February 5th, their mission culminated with the meeting of President Woodrow Wilson. Culbertson Davis presented a beaded Choctaw belt as a token of goodwill to the President.

Almost two years after the trip to Washington, the Indian Appropriations Act of May 18, 1916, was passed. A part of this law set aside $1,000 for an investigation into the condition of the Mississippi Choctaws. John R. T. Reeves was to "investigate the condition of the Indians living in Mississippi and report to Congress... as to their needs for additional land and school facilities..." Reeves submitted his report on November 6, 1916.

Hearings in Union, Mississippi

In March 1917, federal representatives held hearings, attended by about 100 Choctaws, to look into the needs of the Mississippi Choctaws. Some of the congressmen present were: Charles D. Carter of Oklahoma, William W. Hastings of Oklahoma, Carl T. Hayden of Arizona, John N. Tillman of Arkansas, and William W. Venable of Mississippi. These hearings led to improvements such as better access to health care, housing, and schools.

After Cato H. Sells investigated the Choctaws' condition, the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs established the Choctaw Agency on October 8, 1918. The Choctaw Agency was based in Philadelphia, Mississippi, a central place for Indian activities. Dr. Frank J. McKinley was its first superintendent and also the physician.

Before 1916, six Indian schools operated in three counties. The agency established new schools in the following Indian communities: Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homo, Conehatta, Pearl River, Red Water, Standing Pine, and Tucker. Due to segregation, few schools were open to Choctaw children, whom white southerners classified as non-white.

The improvements for Mississippi Choctaws might have continued more smoothly if not for major world events. World War I slowed progress as Washington focused on the war. Some Mississippi Choctaws also served during the war. The Spanish Influenza epidemic also slowed progress, as many Choctaws died from the worldwide illness.

World War I (1918)

In the final days of World War I, a group of Oklahoma Choctaws serving in the U.S. Army used their native language for secret communication among Americans. The Germans could not understand it. These men are now called the Choctaw Code Talkers. The Choctaws were the first Native Americans to serve as code talkers. Captain Lawrence, a company commander, overheard Solomon Louis and Mitchell Bobb speaking in the Choctaw language. He learned there were eight Choctaw men in the battalion.

Fourteen Choctaw men in the Army's 36th Division trained to use their language for military messages. Their communications, which the Germans could not understand, helped the American Expeditionary Force win several key battles in the Meuse-Argonne Campaign in France. Within 24 hours of the U.S. Army using the Choctaw speakers, they changed the course of the battle by controlling their communications. In less than 72 hours, the Germans were retreating, and the Allies were attacking fully. The 14 Choctaw Code Talkers were Albert Billy, Mitchell Bobb, Victor Brown, Ben Caterby, James Edwards, Tobias Frazer, Ben Hampton, Solomon Louis, Pete Maytubby, Jeff Nelson, Joseph Oklahombi, Robert Taylor, Calvin Wilson, and Captain Walter Veach.

More than 70 years passed before the contributions of the Choctaw Code Talkers were fully recognized. On November 3, 1989, the French government honored the Choctaw Code Talkers with the Chevalier de L'Ordre National du Mérite (the Knight of the National Order of Merit).

The U.S. Army again used Choctaw speakers for coded language during World War II.

Reorganization (1934)

During the Great Depression and the Roosevelt Administration, many efforts began to improve social and economic conditions in the South. A 1933 report described the very poor living conditions of Mississippi Choctaws, whose population had grown slightly to 1,665 people by 1930. John Collier, the U.S. Commissioner for Indian Affairs, used this report to help re-organize the Mississippi Choctaw as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. This allowed them to create their own tribal government and build a helpful relationship with the federal government.

In 1934, President Franklin Roosevelt signed the Indian Reorganization Act into law. This law was very important for the survival of the Mississippi Choctaw. Baxter York, Emmett York, and Joe Chitto worked to gain recognition for the Choctaw. They realized that the only way to get recognition was to adopt a constitution. A different group, the Mississippi Choctaw Indian Federation, opposed tribal recognition because they feared the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) would have too much control. This group disbanded after its leaders moved to another area. The first Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians tribal council members were Baxter and Emmett York, with Joe Chitto as the first chairperson.

With the tribe's new government, in 1944 the Secretary of the Interior declared that 18,000 acres (73 km²) would be held in trust for the Choctaw of Mississippi. Lands in Neshoba and nearby counties were set aside as a federal Indian reservation. Eight communities were included in the reservation land: Bogue Chitto, Bogue Homa, Conehatta, Crystal Ridge, Pearl River, Red Water, Tucker, and Standing Pine.

Under the Indian Reorganization Act, the Mississippi Choctaws re-organized on April 20, 1945, as the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. This gave them some independence from the state government, which continued to enforce racial separation and unfair treatment.

World War II (1941)

World War II was a major turning point for Choctaws and Native Americans in general. Although the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek stated Mississippi Choctaws had U.S. citizenship, they were often grouped with "colored people" as non-white in a state that had Jim Crow laws for racial separation. State services for Native Americans were almost nonexistent. The state was poor and still relied on farming. In its system of separation, services for minority groups always received less money. The state constitution and voter registration rules from the early 1900s prevented most Native Americans from voting. This made them unable to serve on juries or run for local or state offices. They had no political voice.

A Mississippi Choctaw veteran stated, "Indians were not supposed to go in the military back then... the military was mainly for whites. My category was white instead of Indian. I don't know why they did that. Even though Indians weren't citizens of this country, couldn't register to vote, didn't have a draft card or anything, they took us anyway."

Van Barfoot, a Choctaw from Mississippi, who was a sergeant and later a second lieutenant in the U.S. Army, received the Medal of Honor. Barfoot was commissioned as an officer after he destroyed two German machine gun nests, captured 17 prisoners, and stopped an enemy tank. Lt. Colonel Edward E. McClish from Oklahoma was a guerrilla leader in the Philippines.

After Reorganization

The first regular tribal council meeting of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians was held on July 10, 1945. The members were Joe Chitto (Chairman), J.C. Allen (Vice Chairman), Nicholas Bell (Secretary Treasurer), Tom Bell, Preatice Jackson, Dempsey Morris, Woodrow W. Jackson, Lonnie Anderson, Joseph Farve, Phillip Farve, Will Wilson, Hensley Gibson, Will Jimmie, Baxter York, Ennis Martin, and Jimpson McMillan.

After World War II, there was pressure in Congress to reduce Washington's control over Native American lands and end the government's responsibilities to them. In 1953, the House of Representatives passed Resolution 108, proposing to end federal services for 13 tribes. The same year, Public Law 280 transferred control over tribal lands to state and local governments in five states. Within ten years, Congress ended federal services to more than sixty groups, despite strong opposition from Native Americans. Congress decided on a policy to end tribes' federal recognition as quickly as possible. Concerned about the isolation of many Native Americans in rural areas, the federal government created programs to help them move to cities for more job opportunities. Experts hoped to speed up Native Americans' adoption of the larger American society, which was becoming more urban. In 1959, the Choctaw Termination Act was passed. Unless canceled by the federal government, the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma would effectively lose its status as a self-governing nation by August 25, 1970.

President John F. Kennedy stopped further termination efforts in 1961. Both presidents Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon later rejected the policy of ending the federal government's relationship with Native American tribes.

We must affirm the right of the first Americans to remain Indians while exercising their rights as Americans. We must affirm their right to freedom of choice and self-determination. We must seek new ways to provide Federal assistance to Indians-with new emphasis on Indian self-help and with respect for Indian culture. And we must assure the Indian people that it is our desire and intention that the special relationship between the Indian and his government grow and flourish. For, the first among us must be not be last.

—President Lyndon Johnson, Message to Congress "The Forgotten American", March 6, 1968.

Mississippi Choctaw Self-Determination

The Choctaw people continued to face economic challenges due to unfair treatment, cultural isolation, and a lack of jobs. The Choctaw, who for 150 years were seen as neither white nor black, were "left where they had always been"—in poverty. Will D. Campbell, a Baptist minister and Civil Rights activist, saw the hardship of the Choctaw. He later wrote, "the thing I remember the most... was the depressing sight of the Choctaws, their shanties along the country roads, grown men lounging on the dirt streets of their villages in demeaning idleness, [...], their half-clad children a picture of hurting that would never end." However, with reorganization and the establishment of tribal government, over the next decades they took control of "schools, health care facilities, legal and judicial systems, and social service programs."

The Choctaws witnessed the social changes that came with Freedom Summer to their ancient homeland. The civil rights movement brought important social changes for the Choctaw in Mississippi, as their civil rights were strengthened. Before the Civil Rights Act of 1964, most jobs went to whites, then to blacks. Donna Ladd wrote that a Choctaw woman, now in her 40s, remembers "as a little girl, she thought that a 'white only' sign in a local store meant she could only order white, or vanilla, ice cream. It was a small story, but one that shows how a third race can easily get left out of the attempts for understanding." On June 21, 1964, James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner (well-known civil rights workers) disappeared. Their remains were later found in a newly built dam. A key moment in the FBI investigation happened when the burned remains of the civil rights workers' car were found on a Mississippi Choctaw reservation. Two Choctaw women, who were in the back seat of a deputy's patrol car, said they saw two people planning to "beat-up" the boys. The end of legal racial segregation allowed the Choctaws to use public institutions and facilities that had been only for white people.

Phillip Martin, who served in the U.S. Army in Europe during World War II, returned to visit his former Neshoba County, Mississippi, home. After seeing the poverty of his people, he decided to stay and help. Martin served as chairperson in various Choctaw committees until 1977.

Martin was elected as Chief of the Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians. He served for 30 years, being re-elected until 2007. Martin passed away in Jackson, Mississippi, on February 4, 2010. He was remembered as a visionary leader who helped his people rise out of poverty by creating businesses and casinos on tribal land.

From the 1960s to Today

During the social changes of the civil rights era, between 1965 and 1982, many Choctaw Native Americans renewed their commitment to their ancient heritage. They worked to celebrate their strengths and use their rights. This greatly reversed the trend of abandoning Indian culture and tradition. In the 1960s, Community Action programs for Native Americans focused on citizen participation. In the 1970s, the Choctaw rejected extreme forms of Native American activism. The Oklahoma Choctaw sought local solutions to reclaim their cultural identity and self-governance as a nation. The Mississippi Choctaw began to build business ventures.

Federal policy under President Richard M. Nixon encouraged giving tribes more power for self-determination, within a policy of federal recognition. Realizing the harm caused by ending tribal status, he stopped the federal focus of the 1950s on ending certain tribes' federally recognized status and relationships with the federal government:

Forced termination is wrong, in my judgment, for a number of reasons. First, the premises on which it rests are wrong... The second reason for rejecting forced termination is that the practical results have been clearly harmful in the few instances in which termination actually has been tried... The third argument I would make against forced termination concerns the effect it has had upon the overwhelming majority of tribes which still enjoy a special relationship with the Federal government... The recommendations of this administration represent an historic step forward in Indian policy. We are proposing to break sharply with past approaches to Indian problems.

—President Richard Nixon, Special Message on Indian Affairs, July 8, 1970.

Soon after this, Congress passed the important Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975. This completed a 15-year period of federal policy changes regarding American Indian tribes. The law allowed tribes to negotiate contracts with the BIA to directly manage more of their education and social service programs. It also provided direct money to help tribes plan how to take on these responsibilities. It also allowed Native American parents to participate on local school boards.

Starting in 1979, the Mississippi Choctaw tribal council worked on many economic development projects. They first aimed to attract industries to the reservation. They had many people available to work, natural resources, and no state or federal taxes. Industries have included automotive parts, greeting cards, direct mail and printing, and plastic-molding. The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians is one of the state's largest employers, running 19 businesses and employing 7,800 people.

Starting with New Hampshire in 1963, many state governments began to operate lotteries and other forms of gaming to raise money for government services. They often promoted these programs by promising to use the money for education, for example. In 1987, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled that federally recognized tribes could operate gaming facilities on reservations. This was because reservations are sovereign territory and free from state rules. As tribes began to develop gaming, starting with bingo, in 1988 the U.S. Congress passed the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act (IGRA). This law set the general rules for Native American tribes to operate casinos. It required them to do so only in states that had already allowed private gaming. Since then, developing casino gaming has been a main source of new income for many tribes.

The Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma developed gaming operations and a related resort: the Choctaw Casino Resort and Choctaw Casino Bingo are popular gaming places in Durant. Located near the Oklahoma-Texas border, these sites attract people from Southern Oklahoma and North Texas. The largest group of visitors comes from the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex.

The Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians (MBCI) tried to get state agreement to develop gaming under the Ray Mabus administration but was unsuccessful. However, in 1992, Mississippi Governor Kirk Fordice gave permission for the MBCI to develop Class III gaming. They have developed one of the largest casino resorts in the nation, located in Philadelphia, Mississippi, near the Pearl River. The Silver Star Casino opened in 1994. The Golden Moon Casino opened in 2002. The casinos are together known as the Pearl River Resort.

After almost two hundred years, the Choctaw have regained control of the ancient sacred site of Nanih Waiya. Mississippi protected the site for years as a state park. In 2006, the state legislature passed a bill to return Nanih Waiya to the Choctaw.

State-Recognized Tribes

Two U.S. states recognize tribes that are not recognized by the U.S. federal government.

Alabama recognizes the MOWA Band of Choctaw Indians, who have a 600-acre reservation in southwestern Alabama and a total enrolled population of 3,600. The band is closely connected with Calcedeaver Elementary School in Mount Vernon, Alabama.

Louisiana recognizes the Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb, Clifton Choctaw, and Louisiana Choctaw Tribe.

Population History

The highest early estimate, possibly showing the largest population, came from Antoine-Simon Le Page du Pratz. He estimated the Choctaw at 25,000 warriors (meaning about 125,000 people) in 1718. Other estimates from that time were usually lower, but they might have only counted part of the tribe. Similar numbers were given by Louis Juchereau de St. Denis, who estimated 18,000 warriors (or 90,000 people) in 1714, and by W. Bull, who estimated 16,000 warriors (or 80,000 people) in 1738. According to B. R. Carroll, the French considered the Choctaw to be the most numerous Native American nation in America. John R. Swanton listed a total of 102 Choctaw villages and towns. Robert Rogers estimated the Choctaw at 10,000 warriors in 1775 (suggesting a total population of 50,000). According to Gilbert Imlay, they had 6,000 warriors around 1800 (implying a total population of 30,000). Jedidiah Morse estimated the Choctaw at 25,000 people around 1820, shortly before the removal. A report from the Commissioner of Indian Affairs dated November 25, 1841, indicates that 15,177 Choctaws had moved to Oklahoma (Indian Territory), while 3,323 remained in the east. Emmanuel Domenech estimated the Choctaw at up to 25,000 around 1860. The Indian Office reported them as 22,707 in 1856. A count published in 1886 showed 18,000 Choctaws in Oklahoma as of 1884. Around 1916–1919, there were 17,488 Choctaws by blood in Oklahoma, 1,651 by marriage, and 6,029 freedmen. Additionally, there were 3,099 Mississippi Choctaws and about 200 Choctaws living elsewhere at that time.

During the 1900s and 2000s, the Choctaw population has grown significantly. In 2020, they numbered 254,154.

In the 2010 U.S. Census, people who identified as Choctaw lived in every state. The states with the largest Choctaw populations were:

• Oklahoma – 79,006
• Texas – 24,024
• California – 23,403
• Mississippi – 9,260
• Arkansas – 4,840
• Alabama – 4,513