Flavian dynasty facts for kids
The Flavian dynasty was a family of Roman emperors who ruled the Roman Empire from AD 69 to 96. This family included Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian. They were the second major group of emperors after the Julio-Claudian family.
The Flavians came to power during a difficult time in AD 69, a year known as the Year of the Four Emperors. This was a civil war where four different generals fought to become emperor. After two emperors, Galba and Otho, died quickly, Vitellius became emperor. But armies in the eastern parts of the empire chose their commander, Vespasian, as emperor instead. Vespasian's forces won a big battle, and they entered Rome on December 20. The next day, the Roman Senate officially made Vespasian emperor, starting the Flavian dynasty. Even though their rule was short, many important things happened during their time.
During Titus's rule, there were big natural disasters. The most famous was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79. This buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum under ash and lava. A year later, Rome itself faced a big fire and a sickness. In terms of military events, Titus led the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70, after a Jewish rebellion failed. In Britain, the Roman general Gnaeus Julius Agricola made big conquests between AD 77 and 83. Emperor Domitian also tried to win against King Decebalus and the Dacians, but it was a tough fight. The empire also made its borders stronger by building more defenses along the Limes Germanicus.
The Flavian emperors also made changes to the economy and culture. Vespasian created new taxes to help the empire's money problems. Domitian improved Roman money by adding more silver to the coins. Titus started a huge building program to celebrate the Flavian family's rise to power. This left many famous landmarks in Rome, like the amazing Flavian Amphitheatre, which we know today as the Colosseum.
The Flavian rule ended on September 18, 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was followed by Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who had supported the Flavians for a long time. Nerva then started the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. The Flavian dynasty was special because it was just one father and his two sons, without many other adopted family members.
Contents
History of the Flavians
How the Family Started
Family Background
In the 1st century BC, many civil wars had weakened Rome's old noble families. New families from Italy slowly became more important. One of these was the Flavian family. They grew from being not very well known to being very powerful in just four generations. They gained wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, was a centurion (a military officer) under Pompey. He had a difficult end to his military career, but he married a very rich woman named Tertulla. Her money helped his son, Titus Flavius Sabinus I, become even wealthier. Sabinus I became a tax collector and a banker, which helped him gain a higher social rank. By marrying Vespasia Polla, he connected his family to a more respected noble family. This helped his sons, Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian, become members of the Roman Senate.
Around AD 38, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. After her death, his partner Caenis was like his wife until she died in 74. Vespasian had a successful political career, becoming a quaestor, aedile, praetor, and finally a consul in 51. He also became famous as a military leader during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Some old stories said the Flavian family was poor when Domitian was young, but modern historians say these stories were probably made up later. The Flavians were actually well-liked by emperors like Claudius (41–54). Titus even received a special education with Claudius's son, Britannicus. Vespasian continued his successful career, serving as governor of the Africa province in 63 and traveling with Emperor Nero in Greece in 66.
From 57 to 59, Titus was a military officer in Germania and later in Britain. His first wife died in 65. Titus then married Marcia Furnilla, whose family was connected to people who opposed Emperor Nero. Some historians think Titus divorced her because of these connections. He never married again. Titus had several daughters, but only one, Julia Flavia, lived to adulthood. During this time, Titus also worked as a lawyer.
In 66, the Jewish people in the Judaea Province rebelled against the Roman Empire. The Roman governor of Syria had to retreat from Jerusalem. Emperor Nero chose Vespasian to stop the rebellion. Vespasian went to the region with two legions (large army units). Titus joined him later with another legion. With 60,000 trained soldiers, the Romans quickly took control of Galilee and marched towards Jerusalem by 68.
Becoming Emperor
On June 9, 68, Emperor Nero ended his own life. This was because the Roman Senate and the army were turning against him. With Nero's death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended, and a year of civil war began. This was the Year of the Four Emperors, where four powerful Roman generals fought for control: Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian. When Nero died, Vespasian was getting ready to attack Jerusalem. The Senate had already declared Galba, who was governor of Spain, as the new emperor. Titus, Vespasian's son, was sent to meet Galba. But before he reached Italy, Titus learned that Galba had been killed and replaced by Otho. At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania were rebelling against Otho. Titus decided not to risk being caught between the fighting sides, so he went back to his father in Judaea.
Otho and Vitellius knew that Vespasian's group was a threat. Vespasian had four legions, which meant about 80,000 soldiers. Being in Judaea also put him close to Egypt, which was important for Rome's food supply. Vespasian's brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, was in charge of Rome's city guard. Vespasian's troops were eager to fight, but Vespasian waited. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius, the armies in Judaea and Egypt decided to act. They declared Vespasian emperor on July 1, 69. Vespasian agreed and made an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria. A strong army from Judaea and Syria marched on Rome under Mucianus. Vespasian himself went to Alexandria in Egypt, leaving Titus to finish the Jewish rebellion.
In Rome, Domitian was kept under house arrest by Vitellius to prevent the Flavians from attacking. But support for Vitellius was fading as more armies across the empire joined Vespasian. On October 24, 69, Vitellius's and Vespasian's forces fought at the Second Battle of Bedriacum. Vitellius's army was badly defeated. In despair, Vitellius tried to surrender. He agreed to step down as emperor with Titus Flavius Sabinus II. However, the Praetorian Guard (the emperor's bodyguards) thought this was shameful and stopped Vitellius from giving up. On December 18, Vitellius tried to give up his imperial symbols, but changed his mind. In the confusion, important Roman leaders gathered at Sabinus's house and declared Vespasian emperor. But Vitellius's soldiers attacked Sabinus's guards, forcing Sabinus to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. Domitian and other relatives joined him there. Mucianus's armies were close to Rome, but the Flavians on the Capitol couldn't hold out for long. On December 19, Vitellius's supporters stormed the Capitol. Sabinus was captured and killed. Domitian escaped by pretending to be a worshipper of a goddess named Isis. He spent the night safely with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of December 20, Vitellius was dead, defeated by the Flavian armies. Domitian came out to meet the victorious forces and was hailed as Caesar. The troops took him to his father's house. The next day, December 21, the Senate officially made Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.
Even though the war was over, there was still chaos in Rome for a few days. Mucianus restored order in early 70. He led a temporary government with Domitian representing the Flavian family in the Senate. When Vespasian heard about Vitellius's defeat, he immediately sent much-needed grain to Rome. He also issued a statement promising to reverse Nero's unpopular laws. Vespasian stayed in Egypt until the end of 70, gathering more support. Finally, he returned to Rome and officially began his rule as emperor.
The Flavian Emperors
Vespasian (69–79 AD)
We don't have a lot of detailed information about Vespasian's government during his ten years as emperor. He spent his first year in Egypt, while Mucianus and Domitian managed the empire. Historians believe Vespasian stayed in Egypt to gain support from the Egyptians. In mid-70, Vespasian came to Rome and immediately started a big effort to strengthen his power and promote his new family. He is most known for fixing Rome's money problems after the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. For example, he introduced a tax on public toilets, which led to the famous saying, "Money does not smell." His reign also saw many military campaigns in the 70s. The most important was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended with Titus destroying Jerusalem. Vespasian also faced some uprisings in Egypt, Gaul, and Germania. He helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple for peace and starting the building of the Flavian Amphitheatre, also known as the Colosseum. Vespasian died of natural causes on June 23, 79. His oldest son, Titus, immediately became emperor. Ancient historians like Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder wrote good things about Vespasian, while criticizing the emperors who came before him.
Titus (79–81 AD)
Even though some people worried about Titus at first, he ruled very well after Vespasian died on June 23, 79. Historians like Suetonius thought he was a good emperor. Titus is famous for his building projects in Rome, like finishing the Colosseum in 80. He was also very generous in helping people after two big disasters: the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and a fire in Rome in 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian family. He brought back the practice of worshipping emperors and made his father a god. He also started building the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which Domitian later finished. After only two years as emperor, Titus suddenly died of a fever on September 13, 81. The Roman Senate declared him a god.
Domitian (81–96 AD)
Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus's death. He ruled for more than fifteen years, which was longer than any emperor since Tiberius. Domitian made the economy stronger by improving Roman coins. He also expanded the empire's border defenses and started a huge building program to fix Rome after the fire. In Britain, the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire into what is now Scotland. However, in Dacia, Domitian could not win a clear victory against the Dacians. On September 18, 96, Domitian was assassinated by people in his court. With his death, the Flavian dynasty ended. On the same day, his friend and advisor Nerva became emperor, starting the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. After Domitian's death, the Roman Senate tried to erase his memory because they had a difficult relationship with him. Writers like Tacitus and Suetonius wrote histories that described Domitian as a cruel and paranoid ruler. However, modern historians now see Domitian as a strong but effective leader. His cultural, economic, and political plans helped set the stage for the peaceful 2nd century. His successors, Nerva and Trajan, were less strict, but their policies were actually quite similar to Domitian's.
How They Governed
Government Style
After the fall of the Roman Republic, the power of the Roman Senate had slowly decreased under the emperors. Emperors like Augustus created a system called the Principate, which allowed them to rule almost like kings while still pretending Rome was a republic. Most emperors kept up this appearance of democracy, and the Senate quietly accepted the emperor's power. The civil war of 69 clearly showed that real power in the empire came from controlling the army. By the time Vespasian became emperor, any hope of bringing back the Republic was gone.
The Flavians ruled by keeping power mostly within their family. When Vespasian returned to Rome in 70, he worked hard to strengthen his power and prevent future rebellions. He gave gifts to the army and removed or punished soldiers who had been loyal to Vitellius. He also reorganized the Senate and other important groups, removing his enemies and adding his supporters. Most of the important government jobs were given to members of his family. People who were not Flavians were mostly kept out of key positions, even those who had supported Vespasian early on. Vespasian wanted to create a long-lasting family rule. This was clear in the powers he gave to his oldest son, Titus. Titus shared power with his father, became consul seven times, and was put in charge of the Praetorian Guard. Because Titus worked almost like a co-emperor, there were no sudden changes in Flavian policy during his short rule from 79 to 81.
Domitian's way of ruling was more direct than his father's and brother's. Once he became emperor, he quickly dropped the idea of Rome being a republic. He openly made the Senate's powers less important by moving the center of power to his own imperial court. Domitian was personally involved in all parts of the government. He issued rules for even small details of daily life and law, and he strictly enforced taxes and public behavior. However, Domitian did try to please the Senate sometimes. Unlike his father and brother, he didn't always favor his own family members for important jobs. He allowed many people from the provinces and even some potential opponents to become consul. He also put people of the equestrian class in charge of the empire's administration.
Money Matters
One of Vespasian's first actions as emperor was to change the tax system to fill the empire's empty treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in 70, Mucianus kept pushing him to collect as many taxes as possible, bringing back old ones and creating new ones. Vespasian and Mucianus increased the taxes on the provinces and watched the treasury officials closely. The Latin saying "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") might have come from Vespasian when he introduced a tax on public toilets.
When Domitian became emperor, he improved Roman coins to the standard of Augustus. He increased the silver content of the denarius coin by 12%. However, a money crisis in 85 forced him to lower the silver content, but it was still higher than what Vespasian and Titus had used. Domitian's strict tax policies made sure this standard lasted for the next eleven years. Coins from this time show very good quality and detailed artwork.
Historians estimate Domitian's yearly income was over 1.2 billion sestertii. More than a third of this money was probably spent on keeping up the Roman army. Another major expense was the huge rebuilding program in Rome itself.
Challenges Faced by the Flavians
Military Actions
The most important military event during the Flavian period was Titus's attack and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD. This was the final part of the Roman campaign in Judaea after the Jewish uprising in 66. The Second Temple was completely destroyed. After this victory, Titus's soldiers called him imperator (a title for a victorious general). Jerusalem was looted, and many people were killed or scattered. The historian Josephus claimed that 1.1 million people died during the siege, most of them Jewish. About 97,000 were captured and made slaves. Many people fled to other areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused a victory wreath, saying that it was God who had helped him win, not himself. When he returned to Rome in 71, Titus was given a triumph (a victory parade). He rode into the city with Vespasian and Domitian, cheered by the Roman people. The parade included treasures and captives from the war. Josephus described huge amounts of gold and silver, re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and treasures from the Temple of Jerusalem, like the Menorah and the Torah. Leaders of the rebellion were executed in the Roman Forum. The parade ended with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The Arch of Titus, which stands at an entrance to the Forum, remembers Titus's victory.
The Roman conquest of Britain continued under the general Gnaeus Julius Agricola. He expanded the Roman Empire into what is now Caledonia (modern-day Scotland) between 77 and 84 AD. In 82, Agricola crossed a body of water and defeated people the Romans had not known before. He fortified the coast facing Ireland. The historian Tacitus said that Agricola often claimed Ireland could be conquered with just one legion and some extra soldiers. Agricola had given shelter to an exiled Irish king, hoping to use him as an excuse to conquer Ireland. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe the crossing was a small exploration or punishment trip to Ireland. The next year, Agricola built a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth River into Caledonia. To help the advance, a large army fort was built at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola fought the Caledonian armies, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. The Romans caused heavy losses to the Caledonians, but two-thirds of their army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and Highlands. This prevented Agricola from taking control of the entire island of Britain.
Most of the military campaigns during Domitian's reign were for defense. He didn't believe in expanding the empire much. His most important military contribution was developing the Limes Germanicus. This was a huge system of roads, forts, and watchtowers built along the Rhine river to protect the empire. However, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and along the Danube river against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Around 84 or 85, the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, invaded the province of Moesia. They caused a lot of damage and killed the Moesian governor. Domitian immediately launched a counter-offensive. This led to one Roman legion being destroyed during a failed trip into Dacia. Their commander was killed, and the army's special eagle standard was lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia again, this time under a different commander. They finally defeated Decebalus in late 88. However, an attack on Dacia's capital was stopped because of a problem on the German border. This forced Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus, which was criticized by writers at the time. For the rest of Domitian's reign, Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom. But Decebalus used the Roman money to strengthen his defenses and continued to challenge Rome. It wasn't until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a final victory against Decebalus was achieved. The Roman army again suffered heavy losses, but Trajan captured the Dacian capital and, importantly, took control of Dacia's gold and silver mines.
Natural Disasters
Even though Titus's rule didn't have many major military or political problems, he faced several big disasters. On August 24, 79, just two months after he became emperor, Mount Vesuvius erupted. This almost completely destroyed the cities and towns around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under meters of stone and lava, killing thousands of people. Titus appointed two former consuls to organize help and personally gave a lot of money from the imperial treasury to help the victims. He also visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the next year. The city was lost for nearly 1700 years until it was accidentally found again in 1748. Since then, its excavation has given us an amazing look into life in a Roman city, frozen at the moment it was buried. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some villas outside the city are still surprisingly well preserved. Today, Pompeii is one of Italy's most popular tourist spots and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Ongoing excavations continue to reveal new information about Roman history and culture.
During Titus's second visit to the disaster area, a fire broke out in Rome that lasted for three days. Although the damage was not as bad as the Great Fire of 64, it still destroyed many important public buildings. These included Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, and parts of Pompey's Theatre. Titus again personally helped pay for the damaged areas. According to Suetonius, a sickness also struck during the fire. However, we don't know what kind of disease it was or how many people died.
Plots Against Emperors
The historian Suetonius claimed that Vespasian constantly faced plots against him. Only one specific plot is known. In 78 or 79, two men tried to make the Praetorian Guard rebel against Vespasian, but Titus stopped the plot. However, some historians believe this was actually a plan by the Flavians to remove their opponents. When faced with real plots, Vespasian and Titus were often kind to their enemies. Vespasian once said, "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," showing his mild nature. Titus once invited men suspected of wanting to be emperor to dinner, gave them gifts, and let them sit next to him at games.
Domitian seems to have faced several plots during his reign, one of which led to his assassination in 96. The first major rebellion happened on January 1, 89. The governor of a German province and his two legions rebelled with the help of a German tribe. The reason for the rebellion is not clear, but it seems it was planned for a while. Some senators might have disliked Domitian's military plans, like his decision to strengthen the German border instead of attacking, his recent retreat from Britain, and his peace treaty with the Dacians. The rebellion was limited to that one province and was quickly discovered. The governor of a nearby German province moved quickly to stop it, helped by others. Trajan, who would later become emperor, was called from Spain, and Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. Luckily, a thaw in the weather prevented the German tribe from crossing the Rhine River to help the rebels. Within 24 days, the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders were severely punished. The rebellious legions were sent to a different frontier, and those who helped defeat them were rewarded.
Historians like Tacitus and Suetonius wrote about increasing persecutions towards the end of Domitian's reign, especially after the failed rebellion in 89. At least twenty senators were executed, including some of Domitian's own family members. However, some of these executions happened earlier, which makes the idea of a "reign of terror" only at the end of his rule less certain. According to Suetonius, some people were found guilty of corruption or treason, while others were accused of minor things, which Domitian justified by saying he was suspicious.
Flavian Culture and Buildings
Public Image and Messages
Since the time of Tiberius, the Julio-Claudian emperors had justified their power by saying they were related to Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could not claim such a connection. So, a huge effort was made to convince people that Flavian rule was meant to be by divine power. At the same time, Flavian messages emphasized Vespasian's role in bringing peace after the crisis of 69. Almost a third of all coins made in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace. Construction projects had inscriptions praising Vespasian and criticizing earlier emperors. A Temple of Peace was built in the forum.
The Flavians also controlled public opinion through books and writings. Vespasian approved histories written during his reign, making sure any negative views of him were removed. He also gave money to writers. Ancient historians like Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus, and Pliny the Elder wrote very positively about Vespasian, while criticizing earlier emperors. Tacitus admitted that Vespasian helped him become more important. Josephus called Vespasian a helper and savior. Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those who spoke against Vespasian were punished. Some philosophers were accused of teaching bad ideas and were sent away from Rome. One philosopher who supported the Republic was executed for his teachings.
Titus and Domitian also brought back the practice of the imperial cult, which was worshipping the emperor as a god. Domitian's first act as emperor was to declare his brother Titus a god. When they died, his baby son and niece were also made gods. To encourage the worship of the imperial family, Domitian built a family tomb and finished the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to his deified father and brother. To remember the Flavian family's military victories, he ordered the building of other temples and finished the Arch of Titus. To further show the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also highlighted connections with the chief god Jupiter, especially by restoring the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.
Building Projects
The Flavian dynasty is perhaps most famous for its huge building program in Rome. This was meant to fix the damage the capital suffered during the Great Fire of 64 and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and a temple to the deified Claudius. In 75, a giant statue of Apollo, which Nero had started as a statue of himself, was finished under Vespasian's orders. He also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Building the Flavian Amphitheatre, now known as the Colosseum, began in 70 under Vespasian and was finally completed in 80 under Titus. Besides providing amazing entertainment for the Roman people, the building was meant to be a giant monument to remember the Flavians' military victories during the Jewish wars. Next to the amphitheater, Titus also ordered the building of a new public bath-house, which was named after him. This building was quickly finished to open at the same time as the Flavian Amphitheatre.
Most of the Flavian building projects happened during Domitian's reign. He spent a lot of money to restore and beautify Rome. More than just fixing things, Domitian's building program was meant to be the highlight of a cultural rebirth across the empire. About fifty structures were built, restored, or completed, a number second only to the amount built under Augustus. Among the most important new buildings were a concert hall (Odeum), a Stadium, and a huge palace on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace. This palace was designed by Domitian's main architect. The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum. He added a fourth level to the Colosseum and finished the seating area inside.
Fun and Games
Both Titus and Domitian loved gladiatorial games and knew how important they were to keep the citizens of Rome happy. In the newly built Colosseum, the Flavians provided amazing entertainment. The first games in the Colosseum lasted for a hundred days and were said to be very grand. They included gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (like elephants and cranes), pretend naval battles where the arena was flooded, horse races, and chariot races. During the games, wooden balls with prizes (like clothing, gold, or even slaves) were dropped into the audience. People could then trade these balls for the prize.
Domitian spent an estimated 135 million sestertii on gifts to the people throughout his reign. He also brought back public banquets, which had become simple food distributions under Nero. He invested large sums in entertainment and games. In 86, he started the Capitoline Games, a contest held every four years. It included athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for speaking, music, and acting. Domitian himself supported competitors from all over the empire and gave out the prizes. New things were also added to the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night battles, and fights involving female and dwarf gladiators. Finally, he added two new teams, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, in addition to the usual White, Red, Green, and Blue teams.
Legacy of the Flavians
The Flavians, even though their dynasty was relatively short, helped bring stability back to an empire that was struggling. While all three emperors have been criticized, especially for their more centralized way of ruling, they made changes that created a stable empire that lasted well into the 3rd century. However, because they came from a military background, they further reduced the power of the Senate. This was a clear move away from the idea of the emperor as just the "first citizen" and more towards the emperor as a true ruler.
We don't have much detailed information about Vespasian's government during his ten years as emperor. He is best known for his financial reforms after the Julio-Claudian dynasty ended. Vespasian was known for his kindness and loyalty to the people. For example, a lot of money was spent on public works and making Rome beautiful again: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, public baths, and the Colosseum.
Titus's reputation among ancient historians is one of the best of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this time, many written by people who lived during his reign, describe Titus very positively. His character is often seen as much better than his brother Domitian's. However, in Jewish memory, "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as a cruel oppressor and destroyer of the Temple.
Even though contemporary historians spoke badly of Domitian after his death, his government laid the groundwork for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century. His rule was the peak of the Pax Romana (Roman Peace). His successors, Nerva and Trajan, were less strict, but their policies were actually quite similar to Domitian's. The Roman Empire thrived between 81 and 96 AD, in what one historian called the "sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian."
See also
- Flavian art
