Linus Pauling facts for kids

Quick facts for kids Linus Pauling ForMemRS
Pauling in 1962
Born	Linus Carl Pauling (1901-02-28)February 28, 1901 Portland, Oregon, U.S.
Died	August 19, 1994(1994-08-19) (aged 93) Big Sur, California, U.S.
Education	Oregon State University (BS) California Institute of Technology (PhD)
Known for	See list Alpha sheet Ancestral sequence reconstruction Backbonding Beta sheet Bond order Breath gas analysis Coiled coil Corey-Pauling rules CPK coloring Crystal structure prediction Electronegativity Elucidating chemical bonds and molecular structures Geometrical frustration Hybridisation theory Hydrogen bonding Ice-type model Linear combination of atomic orbitals Molecular clock Molecular medicine Non-carbon nanotube Orbital overlap Pauling equation Pauling's rules Pauling–Corey–Branson alpha helix Pauling's principle of electroneutrality Quantum chemistry Quantum graph Residual entropy Resonance (chemistry) Slater–Pauling rule Space-filling model Valence bond theory Vitamin C megadosage Xenic acid Advocating nuclear disarmament
Spouse(s)	Ava Helen Miller ​ ​ (m. 1923; died 1981)​
Children	4
Awards	ACS Award in Pure Chemistry (1931) Irving Langmuir Award (1931) Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1933) Davy Medal (1947) Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1954) Nobel Peace Prize (1962) Roebling Medal (1967) Lenin Peace Prize (1968–1969) National Medal of Science (1974) Lomonosov Gold Medal (1977) NAS Award in Chemical Sciences (1979) Priestley Medal (1984) Vannevar Bush Award (1989)
Scientific career
Fields	Quantum chemistry Biochemistry
Institutions	As faculty member Caltech (1927–1963) UC San Diego (1967–1969) Stanford (1969–1975) As fellow Cornell University (1937–1938) University of Oxford (1948) Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions (1963–1967)
Thesis	The Determination with X-Rays of the Structures of Crystals (1925)
Doctoral advisor	Roscoe Dickinson Richard Tolman
Other academic advisors	Arnold Sommerfeld Niels Bohr
Doctoral students	Martin Karplus Jerry Donohue Matthew Meselson Robert E. Rundle Edgar Bright Wilson William Lipscomb Leonard Lerman
Signature
Notes
The only person to win two unshared Nobel Prizes.

Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an amazing American scientist. He was a chemist, biochemist, and chemical engineer. He was also a peace activist, author, and teacher.

Pauling wrote over 1,200 papers and books. About 850 of these were about science. New Scientist magazine called him one of the 20 greatest scientists ever. By the year 2000, he was ranked the 16th most important scientist in history.

He won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954 for his science work. He also won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 for working for peace. He is one of only five people to win more than one Nobel Prize. He is the only person to win two Nobel Prizes by himself, without sharing them. He is also one of two people to win Nobel Prizes in different fields. The other person was Marie Curie.

Pauling helped start the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology. He explained how atoms connect to each other, a process called chemical bonding. He also helped us understand the structures of important molecules in living things. His discoveries helped other scientists figure out the structure of DNA. This was a huge step in understanding how all living things are made.

Later in his life, Pauling spoke out for nuclear disarmament. This means getting rid of nuclear weapons. He also promoted ideas about using large amounts of vitamin C for health. He was married to Ava Helen Pauling, who was also a human rights activist.

Linus Pauling's Early Life and Education

Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, around 1900

Linus Carl Pauling was born on February 28, 1901. He was the first child of Herman Henry William Pauling and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling. He was born in Portland, Oregon. His name, Linus Carl, honored his grandfathers. His family had German and English roots.

In 1902, his sister Pauline was born. His parents moved to find a bigger and cheaper home. His father, Herman, worked as a traveling salesman. Later, he opened his own drugstore.

In 1905, the family moved to Condon, Oregon. Sadly, Herman Pauling died in 1910 when Linus was only nine years old. His mother, Lucy, was left to care for Linus and his two younger sisters.

Linus became interested in chemistry because of a friend, Lloyd A. Jeffress. Lloyd had a small chemistry lab kit. Pauling later wrote that he was "entranced by chemical phenomena." He loved seeing how different substances appeared from reactions. He wanted to learn more about the world this way.

In high school, Pauling did chemistry experiments. He found equipment and materials from an old steel plant. He even tried to start a business with a friend. They offered to test butterfat for dairies. But the dairymen didn't trust two boys with the job, so the business failed.

When he was 15, Pauling had enough credits to go to Oregon State University (OSU). He was missing two American history courses for his high school diploma. The principal wouldn't let him take them at the same time. So, Pauling left high school without a diploma. Forty-five years later, after he won two Nobel Prizes, the school gave him an honorary diploma.

Pauling worked many jobs to save money for college. He worked at a grocery store and as an apprentice machinist. He also set up a photography lab with friends. In September 1917, he was accepted into Oregon State University. He quit his machinist job and told his mother. She didn't see the point of a university education.

College Years and Discoveries

Pauling's graduation photo from Oregon State University, 1922

In his first semester, Pauling took chemistry, math, and other courses. He was active on campus and started a fraternity chapter. After his second year, he planned to work to support his mother. But the college offered him a job teaching chemistry. He worked 40 hours a week and earned enough to continue his studies.

In his last two years, Pauling learned about the work of Gilbert N. Lewis and Irving Langmuir. They studied how atoms are built and how they form molecules. Pauling decided to focus on how the properties of substances relate to their atomic structure. He became one of the first scientists in a new field called quantum chemistry.

Pauling met his future wife, Ava Helen Miller, in a chemistry class he taught. He graduated in 1922 with a degree in chemical engineering. He then went to California Institute of Technology (Caltech) for graduate school. He used X-ray crystallography to study the structure of crystals. He earned his PhD in 1925.

Linus Pauling's Career and Scientific Breakthroughs

In 1926, Pauling traveled to Europe on a special scholarship. He studied with famous physicists like Arnold Sommerfeld and Niels Bohr. These scientists were experts in the new field of quantum mechanics. Pauling became very interested in how quantum mechanics could explain the structure of atoms and molecules. He spent two years on this work. He became a pioneer in using quantum theory to understand molecules.

In 1927, Pauling became a professor at Caltech. He continued his X-ray studies and did quantum calculations. He published about 50 papers in five years. He also created "Pauling's rules" for predicting crystal structures. By 1930, he was a full professor. In 1931, he won a major award for his work. The next year, he published his most important paper. In it, he explained how atomic orbitals combine, a concept called hybridization. This helped explain how carbon atoms bond.

Pauling also became friends with physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer. They planned to work together on chemical bonds. But their friendship ended when Oppenheimer tried to get Pauling's wife, Ava Helen, to go to Mexico with him. She refused and told Pauling, who then stopped working with Oppenheimer.

In 1930, Pauling went to Europe again. He learned about using electron diffraction to study gases. When he returned, he built an electron diffraction tool at Caltech. He used it to study the shapes of many chemical substances.

In 1932, Pauling introduced the idea of electronegativity. This is a measure of how strongly an atom attracts electrons in a chemical bond. He created a scale for most elements. This scale helps predict how atoms will bond together.

In 1936, Pauling became the head of the Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Division at Caltech. He held this position until 1958.

Understanding Chemical Bonds

Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955

In the late 1920s, Pauling started publishing papers about the chemical bond. From 1937 to 1938, he taught at Cornell University. There, he gave many lectures and finished his famous book, The Nature of the Chemical Bond.

This book was so important that he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1954. The prize was "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond." His book is considered "chemistry's most influential book of this century." Even today, scientists still refer to it.

One of Pauling's key ideas was orbital hybridization. He showed that atomic orbitals can mix together. This creates new "hybrid" orbitals that better explain how atoms bond in molecules. For example, carbon atoms can form four equal bonds, like in methane.

He also explained the difference between ionic bonds and covalent bonds. In ionic bonds, electrons are transferred. In covalent bonds, electrons are shared. Pauling showed that most bonds are somewhere in between. His electronegativity concept helps predict how much a bond is ionic or covalent.

Pauling also studied aromatic hydrocarbons, like benzene. He showed that benzene's structure is a mix of different possible structures. He called this idea "resonance." It means the electrons are spread out over the molecule, making it very stable.

Ionic Crystal Structures

In 1929, Pauling published five rules. These rules help scientists predict and explain the structures of ionic compounds. These rules are still used today to understand how atoms arrange themselves in crystals.

Discovering Biological Molecules

Pauling in 1941

An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17–32).

In the mid-1930s, Pauling became interested in molecules important for life. He worked with famous biologists at Caltech. He studied hemoglobin, the protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen. He found that hemoglobin changes its shape when it picks up or drops off oxygen. This made him want to study proteins more deeply.

Proteins are complex, so studying them with X-rays was hard. But Pauling kept working on it. In 1951, Pauling and his team proposed two main shapes for proteins: the alpha helix and the beta sheet. These shapes are like spirals and folded sheets. They are fundamental to how proteins work.

Pauling also tried to figure out the structure of DNA. He thought it was a triple helix. However, his model had some mistakes. Meanwhile, James Watson and Francis Crick were also working on DNA. They used information from Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin's X-ray images. In 1953, Watson and Crick found the correct structure: the DNA double helix.

Pauling later explained why he made a mistake. He didn't have the best X-ray images. Rosalind Franklin had the best images, but Pauling didn't see them before he published his incorrect model. He was also prevented from traveling to a conference where he might have seen them. This was due to political reasons at the time.

Pauling also studied how enzymes work. He suggested that enzymes help reactions happen by making the reaction's "transition state" stable. He also believed that antibodies fit with antigens like a lock and key.

Molecular Genetics and Disease

Pauling in 1948

In 1949, Pauling and his colleagues published a paper about sickle cell disease. They showed that this disease is caused by an abnormal protein in red blood cells. This was the first time a human disease was understood at the molecular level. It was a huge step for molecular genetics.

This success led Pauling to think that other diseases, even mental illnesses, might also be caused by problems with genes. He encouraged research into how chemistry and biology could help understand mental illness.

Linus Pauling's Activism

Wartime Contributions

Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, around 1950

Before World War II, Pauling wasn't very involved in politics. During the war, he worked on military research. He designed the Pauling oxygen meter. This device could measure oxygen in submarines and airplanes. After the war, it was used in incubators for premature babies.

Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer, a later model based on Pauling's design, 1968

Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959

He also worked on finding a substitute for human blood plasma for transfusions. His team developed a substance called polyoxy gelatin. For his important work during the war, he received a special medal from President Harry S. Truman.

Working for Nuclear Peace

The invention of the atomic bomb and his wife Ava's peaceful beliefs changed Pauling. He became a strong peace activist. In 1946, he joined a group led by Albert Einstein. Their goal was to warn people about the dangers of nuclear weapons.

Denial letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952

Because of his political activism, the US government denied him a passport in 1952. He was invited to speak at a science conference in London. After public outcry, he was given a limited passport. His full passport was returned in 1954, just before he received his first Nobel Prize.

In 1955, he signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto. This was a statement from leading scientists calling for peace and nuclear disarmament. He also supported the Mainau Declaration, signed by 52 Nobel Prize winners.

In 1957, Pauling started a petition with scientist Barry Commoner. They asked scientists to stop nuclear testing. In 1958, Pauling and his wife gave a petition to the United Nations. It had over 11,000 signatures from scientists in 50 countries. It called for an end to nuclear weapons testing.

Pauling also debated physicist Edward Teller on TV about the dangers of nuclear fallout. In 1958, Pauling published a book called No more war!. In it, he called for an end to nuclear testing and all wars. He suggested creating a World Peace Research Organization.

Pauling supported a study that measured radioactive strontium-90 in children's baby teeth. This "Baby Tooth Survey" showed that above-ground nuclear testing was spreading dangerous radioactive fallout. This research helped create public pressure.

This pressure led to a ban on above-ground nuclear weapons testing. In 1963, the Partial Test Ban Treaty was signed by John F. Kennedy and Nikita Khrushchev. On the day the treaty began, Pauling was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1962. The Nobel Committee praised his constant work against nuclear weapons and war. Pauling said his wife, Ava, deserved the prize with him.

Facing Political Criticism

Pauling's beret on display at the Nobel Prize Museum

Many people, including other scientists, disagreed with Pauling's political views. Some thought he was too supportive of Soviet communism. In 1960, he was questioned by a US Senate committee. A magazine even called his 1962 Nobel Prize "A Weird Insult from Norway."

Pauling sued a magazine for calling him a "fellow traveler" of communists. He lost the lawsuit. His peace activism also caused problems at Caltech. In 1958, he was asked to step down as head of the Chemistry Division. He later resigned from Caltech after receiving his Nobel Peace Prize money. He then worked at other universities, including Stanford.

Vietnam War Activism

In the 1960s, Pauling strongly opposed the Vietnam War. He said the war was wrong and against the US Constitution. He gave speeches, signed protest letters, and even wrote to the North Vietnamese leader, Ho Chi Minh. His efforts were not listened to by the American government.

In 1970, Pauling received the Lenin Peace Prize from the USSR. He continued his peace work for many years. He and Ava helped start the International League of Humanists.

Linus Pauling's Medical Research

Vitamin C Advocacy

Pauling's book, How to Live Longer and Feel Better, suggested taking a lot of Vitamin C.

In 1941, Pauling was diagnosed with a kidney disease. He believed he controlled it with a special diet and vitamin supplements. This positive experience made him interested in using vitamins to treat diseases.

In 1965, Pauling read a book about using niacin for mental health. He thought vitamins might have important effects beyond preventing vitamin deficiencies. In 1968, he wrote a paper called "Orthomolecular psychiatry." He suggested that giving people the right amounts of natural substances in the brain could help treat mental illness. Pauling created the term "orthomolecular" for this idea. This approach is not widely accepted by mainstream doctors.

In 1973, Pauling started the Linus Pauling Institute. He researched vitamin C and continued his work in chemistry and physics. He became very interested in how vitamin C might prevent heart disease. He suggested that high doses of vitamin C and lysine could help.

Pauling's work on vitamin C caused a lot of debate. He started taking 3 grams of vitamin C every day to prevent colds. He wrote a book in 1970 called Vitamin C and the Common Cold. He also worked with a cancer surgeon, Ewan Cameron, on using vitamin C as a cancer treatment. They wrote papers and a book, Cancer and Vitamin C. Pauling claimed that vitamin C could increase survival for very sick cancer patients.

However, later studies by the Mayo Clinic found that high-dose vitamin C did not help treat cancer. They also found it was no better than a placebo for cancer. The medical community concluded that Pauling's claims about vitamin C for colds or cancer were not proven. Pauling disagreed with these studies. He said they used the wrong methods, like giving vitamin C by mouth instead of by IV. He also said the studies were too short.

Despite the negative findings, Pauling continued to promote vitamin C for cancer and colds. He worked with groups to use vitamin C for children with brain injuries. While some studies today suggest more research is needed, most trials show that vitamin C supplements alone do not prevent cancer.

Linus Pauling's Personal Life

The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: an unidentified person, and Crellin Pauling

Pauling married Ava Helen Miller on June 17, 1923. Their marriage lasted until Ava's death in 1981. They had four children: Linus Carl Jr., Peter, Edward Crellin, and Linda Helen. His children became a psychiatrist, a crystallographer, a biologist, and his daughter married a geologist.

Pauling was raised in the Lutheran Church. Later, he joined the Unitarian Universalist Church. Two years before he died, he said he was an atheist.

In 1960, Pauling got lost while walking near the coast in California. He tried to climb a cliff and got stuck about 300 feet above the ocean. He spent a sleepless night there before being found almost 24 hours later.

Death and Lasting Impact

Linus Pauling died from prostate cancer on August 19, 1994. He was 93 years old. He is buried with his wife in Lake Oswego, Oregon.

Pauling's discoveries had a huge impact on many areas of science. He published about 350 papers on topics like quantum mechanics, chemistry, protein structure, and medicine.

His work on chemical bonding made him one of the founders of modern quantum chemistry. His book The Nature of the Chemical Bond was a key textbook for many years. Ideas like hybridization and electronegativity are still taught in chemistry classes today. His discovery of the alpha helix and beta sheet is a basic part of understanding protein structure.

Francis Crick, who helped discover DNA, called Pauling the "father of molecular biology". Pauling's discovery that sickle cell disease was a "molecular disease" opened the door to studying genetic problems at a tiny, molecular level.

In 2017, Pauling's 1951 paper on protein structure was honored as a "Chemical Breakthrough Award."

How Linus Pauling is Remembered

Oregon State University built the Linus Pauling Science Center. It's a large building for chemistry classes and labs.

On March 6, 2008, the United States Postal Service released a stamp honoring Pauling. It recognized his work on chemical bonds and his role in molecular biology. He was also honored for his work on sickle cell anemia.

In 2008, Pauling was inducted into the California Hall of Fame. His son accepted the honor for him. In Oregon, February 28 is named "Linus Pauling Day." The Linus Pauling Institute is now part of Oregon State University. The university's library also holds many of Pauling's papers and research notebooks.

Caltech also has a Linus Pauling Lecture Hall. Other places named after him include streets, a middle school, and even a small airport. An asteroid, 4674 Pauling, was named after him on his 90th birthday. Linus Torvalds, who created the Linux computer system, was also named after Pauling.

Awards and Honors

Linus Pauling received many awards and honors throughout his life:

Images for kids

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  Pauling in 1962

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  Herman Henry William Pauling, Linus Pauling's father, around 1900

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  Pauling's graduation photo from Oregon State University, 1922

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  Linus Pauling with an inset of his Nobel Prize in 1955

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  Pauling in 1941

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  An alpha helix in ultra-high-resolution electron density contours, with O atoms in red, N atoms in blue, and hydrogen bonds as green dotted lines (PDB file 2NRL, 17–32).

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  Pauling in 1948

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  Beckman D2 Oxygen Analyzer, around 1950

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  Beckman Model 735 Dissolved O2 Analyzer, a later model based on Pauling's design, 1968

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  Beckman Model D Oxygen Meter, based on Pauling's design, with infant incubator, 1959

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  Denial letter from Ruth B. Shipley, Chief Passport Division, Department of State to Linus Pauling on February 14, 1952

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  Pauling's beret on display at the Nobel Prize Museum

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  Pauling's book, How to Live Longer and Feel Better, suggested taking a lot of Vitamin C.

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  The Pauling children at a gathering in celebration of the 1954 Nobel Prizes in Stockholm, Sweden. Seated from left: Linus Pauling, Jr., Peter Pauling and Linda Pauling. Standing from left: an unidentified person, and Crellin Pauling

See also

In Spanish: Linus Pauling para niños

• List of peace activists
• Niacin