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Bengal is a region with a very long and interesting history. For much of its past, Bengal was divided into many separate kingdoms. It was only fully united a few times. In ancient times, Bengal had kingdoms like Pundra, Suhma, Vanga, Samatata, and Harikela. Around 400 BCE, during the Nanda Empire, powerful rulers from a kingdom called Gangaridai used their strong war elephants. This helped make Alexander the Great decide to leave the Indian subcontinent.

In 750 AD, a ruler named Gopala brought Bengal together again under the Pala Empire. This empire followed Buddhism and Shaivism (a part of Hinduism). The Pala period is seen as a golden age for Bengal. It brought peace and wealth after many years of fighting. During this time, amazing art and buildings were created. The early Bengali language also started to develop, including its first famous writings. After the Palas, other dynasties like the Buddhist and Hindu Chandra dynasty, Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled. The Deva dynasty's rule was also a time of peace and creativity, often called a "golden age." Later, Hindu Maharajas ruled kingdoms like Chandradwip and Cooch Behar.

In the early 1200s, Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji conquered parts of Western and Northern Bengal. He set up the first Muslim kingdom there. Different Islamic dynasties, like the Mamluk Sultanate, the Khalji dynasty, and others, ruled Bengal for over 320 years. A notable ruler was Razia Sultana, the only female ruler, who shared her reign with her husband Malik Altunia. After the Delhi Sultanate, the Bengal Sultanate was formed by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah. This was a very important trading nation. The Ilyas Shahi dynasty and later the Hussain Shahi dynasty ruled it. During the Hussain Shahi rule, the sultanate grew to include the port of Chittagong, where the first Portuguese merchants arrived.

Contents

Ancient Bengal's Kingdoms

How Bengal Was Divided Long Ago

Bengal was once split into several ancient regions. Each had its own name and location.

Ancient Political Divisions
Ancient Political Divisions
Ancient region Modern region
Pundravardhana Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division in Bangladesh; Malda division of West Bengal in India
Vanga Khulna Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh; West of the Padma river.
Tirabhukti Mithila area of India and Nepal
Gauda Modern Malda and Murshidabad districts of West Bengal, India
Suhma Burdwan division, Medinipur division and Presidency division of West Bengal in India
Rarh Corresponds to the modern Bardhaman, Bankura, Hooghly and Nadia districts of West Bengal in India
Samatata Dhaka Division, Barisal Division and Chittagong Division in Bangladesh
Harikela Sylhet Division, Chittagong Division, Dhaka Division and Barisal Division in Bangladesh

Early Kingdoms in Bengal

Here are some of the earliest kingdoms that existed in Bengal:

Anga Kingdom (around 1100 – 530 BCE)

The Anga kingdom is mentioned in old texts like the Atharvaveda. It was later taken over by the Magadha kingdom during the time of King Bimbisara.

Some known Anga rulers include:

  • Maharaj Anga (the kingdom's founder)
  • Romapada
  • Angaraj Karna
  • Brahmadatta (the last king)

Vanga Kingdom (around 1100 – 340 BCE)

Vanga was an old kingdom located in southern Bengal, near the Ganges delta. It covered parts of what is now southwestern Bangladesh and southern West Bengal in India.

Some known Vanga rulers include:

  • Samudrasena
  • Chadrasena

Pundra Kingdom (around 1100 – 340 BCE)

The Pundra Kingdom was an ancient state. It included parts of today's Rajshahi and Rangpur Divisions in Bangladesh. It also covered the West Dinajpur district of West Bengal, India.

A known Pundra ruler was:

  • Paundraka Vasudeva

Suhma Kingdom (around 1100 – 340 BCE)

Suhma was an ancient state in the eastern part of Bengal during the Vedic period. It is mentioned in the epic story of the Mahabharata.

Videha Dynasty of Mithila (around 1100 – 700 BCE)

The Mithila region is bordered by several rivers and the Himalayan foothills. The Videha dynasty ruled this area first. There were 52 kings, called Janaka, in this dynasty.

The first Janaka was Mithi, who founded Mithila. The last king was Kriti Janak. He was a harsh ruler and was removed from power by the people. After this, the Licchavi clan took control of the Mithila region around the 8th century BCE.

Gangaridai Kingdom (around 350 – 100 BCE)

Ancient Greek and Roman writers used the term Gangaridai to describe a group of people or a region in ancient India. Some writers said that Alexander the Great decided not to invade India because of the strong war elephant army of the Gangaridai. At that time, the Nanda Empire also ruled this area.

Many modern experts believe Gangaridai was located in the Ganges Delta region of Bengal. The capital city, Gange or Ganges, might have been Chandraketugarh or Wari-Bateshwar.

Magadha Dynasties and Bengal

Magadha Expansion 1
Expansion of Magadha dynasties and Empires

Brihadratha Dynasty (around 1700 – 682 BCE)

This was one of the early dynasties that ruled the Magadha region, which influenced Bengal.

Some rulers of this dynasty were:

  • Brihadratha
  • Jarasandha
  • Ripunjaya (the last ruler, overthrown in 682 BCE)
List of Brihadratha dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE)
Brihadratha - BCE
Jarasandha - BCE
Sahadeva of Magadha - BCE
Somadhi 1661–1603 BCE
Srutasravas 1603–1539 BCE
Ayutayus 1539–1503 BCE
Niramitra 1503–1463 BCE
Sukshatra 1463–1405 BCE
Brihatkarman 1405–1382 BCE
Senajit 1382–1332 BCE
Srutanjaya 1332–1292 BCE
Vipra 1292–1257 BCE
Suchi 1257–1199 BCE
Kshemya 1199–1171 BCE
Subrata 1171–1107 BCE
Dharma 1107–1043 BCE
Susuma 1043–970 BCE
Dridhasena 970–912 BCE
Sumati 912–879 BCE
Subala 879–857 BCE
Sunita 857–817 BCE
Satyajit 817–767 BCE
Viswajit 767–732 BCE
Ripunjaya 732–682 BCE

(Ripunjaya was the last ruler of dynasty, dethorned by Pradyota in 682 BCE)

Pradyota Dynasty (around 682 – 544 BCE)

This dynasty followed the Brihadrathas.

Some rulers were:

  • Pradyota Mahasena
  • Varttivarddhana (the last ruler, overthrown in 544 BCE)
List of Pradyota dynasty Rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE) Period
Pradyota Mahasena 682–659 BCE 23
Palaka 659–635 BCE 24
Visakhayupa 635–585 BCE 50
Ajaka 585–564 BCE 21
Varttivarddhana 564–544 BCE 20

(Varttivarddhana was last ruler of dynasty dethroned by Bimbisara in 544 BCE)

Haryanka Dynasty (around 544 – 413 BCE)

This dynasty was important in the history of Magadha.

Some rulers included:

List of Haryanka dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE)
Bimbisara 544–491 BCE
Ajatashatru 491–461 BCE
Udayin 461–428 BCE
Anirudha 428–419 BCE
Munda 419–417 BCE
Darshaka 417–415 BCE
Nāgadāsaka 415–413 BCE

(Nāgadāsaka was last ruler of dynasty overthrowed by Shishunaga in 413 BCE)

Shishunaga Dynasty (around 413 – 345 BCE)

This dynasty continued to rule the Magadha region.

Some rulers were:

  • Shishunaga
  • Mahanandin (the last ruler, whose empire was taken by his son in 345 BCE)
List of Shishunga dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE)
Shishunaga 413–395 BCE
Kalashoka 395–377 BCE
Kshemadharman 377–365 BCE
Kshatraujas 365–355 BCE
Nandivardhana 355–349 BCE
Mahanandin 349–345 BCE

(Mahanandin lost his empire by his illegitimate son Mahapadma Nanda in 345 BCE)

Nanda Empire (around 345 – 322 BCE)

The Nanda Empire was a very powerful empire that conquered all of Bengal.

Some rulers were:

List of Nanda dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE)
Mahapadma Nanda 345–340 BCE
Pandukananda 340–339 BCE
Pandugatinanda 339–338 BCE
Bhutapalananda 338–337 BCE
Rashtrapalananada 337–336 BCE
Govishanakananda 336–335 BCE
Dashasiddhakananda 335–334 BCE
Kaivartananda 334–329 BCE
Dhana Nanda 329–321 BCE

(Dhana Nanda lost his empire to Chandragupta Maurya after being defeated by him in 322 BCE)

Maurya Empire (around 322 – 184 BCE)

The Maurya Empire was the first large, united empire in India, and it included Bengal.

Some important rulers were:

  • Chandragupta Maurya (founder of the empire)
  • Ashoka (a very famous emperor, known for his victory in the Kalinga war)
  • Brihadratha (the last ruler, killed by his general in 185 BCE)
Ruler Reign Notes
Chandragupta Maurya 322–297 BCE Founder of first Indian united empire.
Bindusara Amitraghata 297–273 BCE Known for his foreign diplomacy and crushed of Vidarbh revolt.
Ashoka 268–232 BCE Greatest emperor of dynasty. His son Kunala was blinded and died before his father. Ashoka was succeeded by his grandson. Also known for Kalinga war victory.
Dasharatha Maurya 232–224 BCE Grandson of Ashoka.
Samprati 224–215 BCE Brother of Dasharatha.
Shalishuka 215–202 BCE
Devavarman 202–195 BCE
Shatadhanvan 195–187 BCE Mauryan Empire had shrunk by the time of his reign
Brihadratha 187–184 BCE Assassinated by his Commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE.

(Brihadratha was the last ruler of dynasty, dethroned by Pushyamitra Shunga in 185 BCE)

Shunga Empire (around 185 – 73 BCE)

This dynasty came after the Mauryas.

Some rulers were:

List of Shunga dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign (BCE)
Pushyamitra Shunga 185–149 BCE
Agnimitra 149–141 BCE
Vasujyeshtha 141–131 BCE
Vasumitra 131–124 BCE
Bhadraka 124–122 BCE
Pulindaka 122–119 BCE
Ghosha 119–108 BCE
Vajramitra 108–94 BCE
Bhagabhadra 94–83 BCE
Devabhuti 83–73 BCE

(Devabhuti was the last ruler of dynasty dethroned by, dethroned Vasudeva Kanva in 73 BCE)

Kanva Dynasty (around 73 – 28 BCE)

This was a short-lived dynasty that followed the Shungas.

Some rulers were:

  • Vasudeva Kanva
  • Susarman (the last ruler, overthrown by the Satavahana Empire)
List of Kanava dynasty rulers
Ruler Reign Period
Vasudeva Kanva 73–64 BCE 9
Bhumimitra 64–50 BCE 14
Narayana 50–38 BCE 12
Susarman 38–28 BCE 10

(Susarman was the last ruler of dynasty, dethroned by Simuka of Satavahana Empire)

Classical Era Kingdoms

Chandra Dynasty (around 202 – 1050 CE)

The Chandra Kingdom was a Hindu kingdom that ruled the Samatata region of Bengal. It was a neighbor to the Pala Empire.

This dynasty had many rulers, including:

  • Chandrodaya (the first ruler)
  • Kuverami (a queen)
  • Traillokyachandra (a ruler of the Harikela branch)
  • Govindachandra (the last ruler of this branch)
List of Chandra dynasty Rulers
# King Period Reign (CE)
1 Chandrodaya 27 202–229
2 Annaveta 5 229–234
3 Chandranveta 77 234–311
4 Rimbhiappa 23 311–334
5 Kuverami (Queen) 7 334–341
6 Umavira 20 341–361
7 Jugna 7 361–368
8 Lanki 2 368–370
9 Dvenchandra 55 370–425
10 Rajachandra 20 425–445
11 Kalachandra 9 445–454
12 Devachandra 22 454–476
13 Yajnachandra 7 476–483
14 Chandrabandu 6 483–489
15 Bhumichandra 7 489–496
16 Bhutichandra 24 496–520
17 Nitichandra 55 520–575
18 Virachandra 3 575–578
19 Pritichandra 12 578–590
20 Prithvichandra 7 590–597
21 Dhirtichandra 3 597–600
22 Mahavira 12 600–612
23 Virayajap 12 612–624
24 Sevinren 12 624–636
25 Dharmasura 13 636–649
26 Vajrashakti 16 649–665
27 Dharmavijaya 36 665–701
28 Narendravijaya 2 yr 9 months 701–703
29 Dharmachandra 16 703–720
30 Anandachandra 9+ 720–729+
Harikela dynasty
1 Traillokyachandra 30 900–930
2 Srichandra 45 930–975
3 Kalyanachandra 25 975–1000
4 Ladahachandra 20 1000–1020
5 Govindachandra 30 1020–1050

Gupta Empire (around 240 – 550 CE)

The Gupta Empire was a powerful empire that also included parts of Bengal. It is often called a "Golden Age" of India.

Some rulers were:

Jaintia Kingdom (around 525 – 1835 CE)

This kingdom had a very long history, with different groups of rulers over time.

Some rulers from different periods include:

  • Urmi Rani (early ruler)
  • Jayanta (partitioned Jaintia ruler)
  • Kedareshwar Rai (Brahmin dynasty ruler)
  • Prabhat Ray Syiem Sutnga (new dynasty ruler)
  • Rajendra Singh Syiem Sutnga (last ruler)

Gauda Kingdom (around 550 – 626 CE)

The Gauda Kingdom was an important independent kingdom in Bengal.

Known rulers include:

  • Shashanka (the first recorded independent Hindu king of Bengal, who united Bengal)
  • Manava (ruled for a short time before being conquered)

Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) Empire (around 606 – 647 CE)

This empire united much of Northern India.

A key ruler who influenced Bengal was:

Khadga Dynasty (around 625 – 730 CE)

This dynasty ruled parts of Bengal.

Some rulers were:

  • Khadgodyama
  • Rajabhatta
Titular Name Reign Notes
Khadgodyama 625-640 Father of Jatakhadga
Jatakhadga 640-658 Father of Devakhadga
Devakhadga 658-673 Queen Prabhavati
Rajabhatta 673-707 Son of Devakhadga
Balabhata 707-716 Son of Devakhadga
Udirnakhadga  ??

Bhadra Dynasty (6th to 7th century)

The Bhadra dynasty was a Hindu royal family of Brahmin origin in Bengal. Not much is known about them, but their kings had names ending in "Bhadra."

Known rulers include:

  • Narayanabhadra
  • Jyeshthabhadra

Mallabhum Kingdom (around 694 – 1147 CE)

This kingdom also had a long line of rulers.

Some rulers were:

  • Adi Malla (the first king)
  • Hambir Malla Dev (Bir Hambir)
  • Kalipada Singha Thakur (ruled until 1947)
Name of the king Reign Notes
Adi Malla 694–710
Jay Malla 710–720
Benu Malla 720–733
Kinu Malla 733–742
Indra Malla 742–757
Kanu Malla 757–764
Dha (Jhau) Malla 764–775
Shur Malla 775–795
Kanak Malla 795–807
Kandarpa Malla 807–828
Sanatan Malla 828–841
Kharga Malla 841–862
Durjan (Durjay) Malla 862–906
Yadav Malla 906–919
Jagannath Malla 919–931
Birat Malla 931–946
Mahadev Malla 946–977
Durgadas Malla 977–994
Jagat Malla 994–1007
Ananta Malla 1007–1015
Rup Malla 1015–1029
Sundar Malla 1029–1053
Kumud Malla 1053–1074
Krishna Malla 1074–1084
Rup II (Jhap) Malla 1084–1097
Prakash Malla 1097–1102
Pratap Malla 1102–1113
Sindur Malla 1113–1129
Sukhomoy(Shuk) Malla 1129–1142
Banamali Malla 1142–1156
Yadu/Jadu Malla 1156–1167
Jiban Malla 1167–1185
Ram Malla 1185–1209
Gobinda Malla 1209–1240
Bhim Malla 1240–1263
Katar(Khattar) Malla 1263–1295
Prithwi Malla 1295 -1319
Tapa Malla 1319–1334
Dinabandhu Malla 1334–1345
Kinu/Kanu II Malla 1345–1358
Shur Malla II 1358–1370
Shiv Singh Malla 1370–1407
Madan Malla 1407–1420
Durjan II (Durjay) Malla 1420–1437
Uday Malla 1437–1460
Chandra Malla 1460–1501
Bir Malla 1501–1554
Dhari Malla 1554–1565
Hambir Malla Dev (Bir Hambir) 1565–1620
Dhari Hambir Malla Dev 1620–1626
Raghunath Singha Dev 1626–1656
Bir Singha Dev 1656–1682
Durjan Singha Dev 1682–1702
Raghunath Singha Dev II 1702–1712
Gopal Singha Dev 1712–1748
Chaitanya Singha Dev 1748–1801
Madhav Singha Dev 1801–1809
Gopal Singha Dev II 1809–1876
Ramkrishna Singha Dev 1876–1885
Dwhaja Moni Devi 1885–1889
Nilmoni Singha Dev 1889–1903
Churamoni Devi (Regency) 1903–1930
Kalipada Singha Thakur 1930–1947

Post-Classical Era

Pala Empire (around 750 – 1161 CE)

The Pala Empire was a very important empire in Bengal. Historians have different ideas about the exact dates of their rule.

Some important Pala rulers were:

  • Gopala I (founder)
  • Dharmapala
  • Devapala
  • Mahipala I
  • Ramapala
  • Madanapala (last major ruler)
RC Majumdar (1971) AM Chowdhury (1967) BP Sinha (1977) DC Sircar (1975–76) D. K. Ganguly (1994)
Gopala I 750–770 756–781 755–783 750–775 750–774
Dharmapala 770–810 781–821 783–820 775–812 774–806
Devapala 810–c. 850 821–861 820–860 812–850 806–845
Mahendrapala NA (Mahendrapala's existence was conclusively established through a copper-plate charter discovered later.) 845–860
Shurapala I Deemed to be alternate name of Vigrahapala I 850–858 860–872
Gopala II NA (copper-plate charter discovered in 1995. Text of inscription published in 2009.)
Vigrahapala I 850–853 861–866 860–865 858–60 872–873
Narayanapala 854–908 866–920 865–920 860–917 873–927
Rajyapala 908–940 920–952 920–952 917–952 927–959
Gopala III 940–957 952–969 952–967 952–972 959–976
Vigrahapala II 960–c. 986 969–995 967–980 972–977 976–977
Mahipala I 988–c. 1036 995–1043 980–1035 977–1027 977–1027
Nayapala 1038–1053 1043–1058 1035–1050 1027–1043 1027–1043
Vigrahapala III 1054–1072 1058–1075 1050–1076 1043–1070 1043–1070
Mahipala II 1072–1075 1075–1080 1076–1078/9 1070–1071 1070–1071
Shurapala II 1075–1077 1080–1082 1071–1072 1071–1072
Ramapala 1077–1130 1082–1124 1078/9–1132 1072–1126 1072–1126
Kumarapala 1130–1140 1124–1129 1132–1136 1126–1128 1126–1128
Gopala IV 1140–1144 1129–1143 1136–1144 1128–1143 1128–1143
Madanapala 1144–1162 1143–1162 1144–1161/62 1143–1161 1143–1161
Govindapala 1158–1162 NA 1162–1176 or 1158–1162 1161–1165 1161–1165
Palapala NA NA NA 1165–1199 1165–1200

Sena Dynasty (around 1070 – 1230 CE)

The Sena dynasty took over after the Palas. Vijaya Sena conquered all of Bengal by 1154 CE.

Some rulers were:

  • Hemanta Sena
  • Vijaya Sena
  • Ballala Sena
  • Lakshmana Sena
  • Vishvarupa Sena
  • Keshava Sena (last ruler)

Deva Dynasty (around 1150 – 1294 CE)

The list of rulers for this dynasty is debated by historians.

Some known rulers include:

  • Damodaradeva
  • Dasharathadeva
  • Vikramadityadeva

Delhi Sultanate Period

Khalji Dynasty (around 1203–1231)

The Khalji dynasty of Bengal started as representatives of the Ghurid Empire. They later became independent but sometimes answered to the Delhi Sultanate.

Some rulers were:

  • Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji (started the Khalji dynasty in Bengal)
  • Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Shah
  • Balka Khalji (last Khalji ruler)
Name Reign Notes
Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji c.1203–1206 Began the Khalji dynasty in Bengal
Muhammad Shiran Khalji 1206–1208
Husamuddin Iwaz Khalji 1208–1210
Ali Mardan Khalji 1210–1212
Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Shah 1212–1227 Second term, killed for gaining independence from Sultan of Delhi Iltutmish
Alauddin Daulat Shah Khalji 1229–1230
Balka Khalji 1230–1231 Last Khalji ruler

Governors of Bengal under Mamluk Dynasty (1227–1287)

These governors were appointed by the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.

Some governors were:

  • Nasiruddin Mahmud
  • Tughral Tughan Khan
  • Nasiruddin Bughra Khan (declared independence and started the Balban dynasty)
Name Reign Notes
Nasiruddin Mahmud 1227–1229 Appointed by his father Sultan Iltutmish of Delhi
Alauddin Jani 1232–1233
Saifuddin Aibak 1233–1236
Awar Khan Aibak 1236 Usurper
Tughral Tughan Khan 1236–1246 Restored Mamluk governor
Tughlaq Tamar Khan 1246–1247
Jalaluddin Masud Jani 1247–1251
Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Iuzbak 1251–1257 Claimed independence.
Ijjauddin Balban Iuzbaki 1257–1259
Tatar Khan 1259–1268 Claimed independence.
Sher Khan 1268–1272
Amin Khan 1272–1272
Tughral Tughan Khan 1272–1281 Second term as Mughisuddin Tughral
Nasiruddin Bughra Khan 1281–1287 Declared independence and founded the Balban dynasty

House of Balban (around 1287–1324)

This dynasty began when the Mamluk governor Nasiruddin Bughra Khan declared independence from Delhi.

Some rulers were:

  • Nasiruddin Bughra Khan (declared independence)
  • Shamsuddin Firoz Shah (conquered new areas like Sonargaon and Sylhet)
  • Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah (lost Bengal's independence to the Delhi Sultan)
Name Reign Notes
Nasiruddin Bughra Khan 1287–1291 Declared independence from Delhi Sultanate
Rukunuddin Kaikaus 1291–1300 First Muslim ruler to conquer Satgaon kingdom, expanding Lakhnauti.
Shamsuddin Firoz Shah 1300–1322 First Muslim ruler to conquer Sonargaon, Mymensingh and Srihatta. Completed Kaikaus' Conquest of Satgaon.
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah 1322–1324 Lost independence of Bengal to Delhi Sultan Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

Governors of Bengal under Tughlaq Dynasty (1324–1338)

After the Tughlaqs took over Bengal, they appointed governors for different regions.

Some governors included:

  • Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah (governor of Sonargaon, later declared independence)
  • Bahram Khan (governor of Sonargaon)
  • Qadar Khan (governor of Lakhnauti)
Name Region Reign Notes
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah Sonargaon 1324–1328 Appointed as governor by Sultan of Delhi Muhammad bin Tughluq, but later declared independence
Bahram Khan Sonargaon 1328–1338
Qadar Khan Lakhnauti 1328–1336
Mukhlis Lakhnauti 1336–1339
Azam Khan Satgaon 1324–1328
Izzuddin Yahya Satgaon 1328–1338

Bengal Sultanate Era

Independent Sultans during Tughlaq Dynasty (1338–1352)

During this time, some rulers in Bengal declared independence from the Tughlaq dynasty.

Some of these independent rulers were:

  • Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah (first independent ruler of Sonargaon)
  • Ilyas Shah (became the first sole ruler of all Bengal)
Name Region Reign Notes
Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah Sonargaon 1338–1349 First independent ruler of Sonargaon
Ikhtiyaruddin Ghazi Shah Sonargaon 1349–1352
Ilyas Shah Satgaon 1339–1342
Alauddin Ali Shah Lakhnauti 1339–1342
Ilyas Shah Lakhnauti and Satgaon 1342–1352

Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (1352–1414)

This dynasty united Bengal under one ruler.

Some rulers were:

  • Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah (first sole ruler of all Bengal)
  • Sikandar Shah
  • Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah
Name Reign Notes
Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah 1352–1358 Became the first sole ruler of whole Bengal comprising Sonargaon, Satgaon and Lakhnauti.
Sikandar Shah 1358–1390 Killed in battle with his son and successor, Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah
Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah 1390–1411
Saifuddin Hamza Shah 1411–1412
Shihabuddin Bayazid Shah 1412–1414

House of Raja Ganesha (1414–1435)

This was a short period when a Hindu ruler and his family took control.

Some rulers were:

  • Raja Ganesha
  • Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah (son of Raja Ganesha, who converted to Islam)
  • Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah
Name Reign Notes
Raja Ganesha 1414–1415
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah 1415–1416 Son of Raja Ganesha and converted into Islam
Raja Ganesha 1416–1418 Second Phase
Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah 1418–1433 Second Phase
Shamsuddin Ahmad Shah 1433–1435

Restored Ilyas Shahi Dynasty (1435–1487)

The Ilyas Shahi dynasty returned to power after the House of Raja Ganesha.

Some rulers were:

  • Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah
  • Rukunuddin Barbak Shah
  • Jalaluddin Fateh Shah
Name Reign Notes
Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah 1435–1459
Rukunuddin Barbak Shah 1459–1474 Son of Mahmud Shah
Shamsuddin Yusuf Shah 1474–1481 Son of Barbak Shah
Nuruddin Sikandar Shah 1481 Son of Mahmud Shah
Jalaluddin Fateh Shah 1481–1487 Son of Mahmud Shah

Habshi Rule (1487–1494)

Habshi rulers, who were from East Africa, took control for a short period.

Some rulers were:

  • Saifuddin Firuz Shah
  • Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah
Name Reign Notes
Shahzada Barbak 1487
Saifuddin Firuz Shah 1487–1489
Mahmud Shah II 1489–1490
Shamsuddin Muzaffar Shah 1490–1494

Hussain Shahi Dynasty (1494–1538)

This dynasty is known for a time of great cultural growth in Bengal.

Some rulers were:

  • Alauddin Hussain Shah (seen as one of the greatest sultans for cultural growth)
  • Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah
  • Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah
Name Reign Notes
Alauddin Hussain Shah 1494–1518 considered greatest of all sultans of Bengal for bringing cultural renaissance during his reign.
Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah 1518–1533
Alauddin Firuz Shah 1533
Ghiyasuddin Mahmud Shah 1533–1538

Governors of Bengal under Sur Empire (1532–1556)

The Sur Empire, based in Delhi, also appointed governors for Bengal.

Some governors were:

Name Reign Notes
Sher Shah Suri 1532–1538 Defeated Mughals and became the ruler of Delhi in 1540.
Khidr Khan 1538–1541
Qazi Fazilat 1541–1545
Muhammad Khan Sur 1545–1554
Shahbaz Khan 1555

Muhammad Shah Dynasty (1554–1564)

This dynasty declared independence from the Sur Empire.

Some rulers were:

  • Muhammad Khan Sur (declared independence)
  • Khizr Khan Suri
Name Reign Notes
Muhammad Khan Sur 1554–1555 Declared independence and styled himself as Shamsuddin Muhammad Shah
Khizr Khan Suri 1555–1561
Ghiyasuddin Jalal Shah 1561–1563
Ghiyasuddin Bahadur Shah III 1563–1564

Karrani Dynasty (1564–1576)

This was the last independent Afghan dynasty to rule Bengal.

Some rulers were:

  • Taj Khan Karrani
  • Sulaiman Khan Karrani
  • Daud Khan Karrani (the last ruler)
Name Reign Notes
Taj Khan Karrani 1564–1566
Sulaiman Khan Karrani 1566–1572
Bayazid Khan Karrani 1572
Daud Khan Karrani 1572–1576

Mughal Subahdars of Bengal Subah (1574–1717)

During the Reign of Akbar the Great

These governors served during the rule of the famous Mughal emperor Akbar.

Some Subahdars were:

  • Munim Khan
  • Raja Man Singh I
Name Reign Notes
Munim Khan 1574–1575 Khan-i-Khanan
Hussain Quli Khan 1575–1578
Muzaffar Khan Turbati 1579–1580
Mirza Aziz Koka 1582–1583
Wazir Khan Tajik 1583–1583
Shahbaz Khan Kamboh 1583–1585
Sadiq Khan 1585–1586
Shahbaz Khan Kamboh 1586–1587
Sa'id Khan 1587–1594
Raja Man Singh I 1597 – 1606

During the Reign of Jahangir

These governors served during the rule of Emperor Jahangir.

Some Subahdars were:

  • Islam Khan Chishti (moved the capital of Bengal to Dhaka in 1612)
  • Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang
Name Reign Notes
Qutubuddin Koka 2 Sep 1606 – 1607 killed in a battle against Sher Afghan. (Local history of Burdwan, West Bengal, India says that Qutub-ud-din Kokah died in a battle against Ali Quli Istajlu alias Sher Afgan in 1610 CE. The tomb where both of them were buried is presently under the surveillance of Archaeological Survey of India.)
Jahangir Quli Beg 1607–1608 In early life, a slave of Akbar's brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim
Islam Khan Chishti 1608–1613 first governor to transfer the Bengal capital to Dhaka in April 1612
Qasim Khan Chishti 1613–1617 younger brother of Islam Khan Chishti
Ibrahim Khan Fath-i-Jang 1617–1624 died in an attack by Prince Shahjahan
Darab Khan 1624–1625 while Shahjahan occupied Bengal. Killed by Mahabbat Khan.
Mahabat Khan 1625–1626
Mukarram Khan 1626–1627
Fidai Khan 1627–1628

During the Reign of Shah Jahan

These governors served during the rule of Emperor Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal.

A key Subahdar was:

  • Prince Shah Shuja
Name Reign Notes
Qasim Khan Juvayni 1628–1632
Mir Muhammad Baqir 1632–1635 Known as Azam Khan
Mir Abdus Salam 1635–1639 Known as Islam Khan Mashadi
Prince Shah Shuja 1639–1647 again 1652–1660

During the Reign of Aurangzeb

These governors served during the rule of Emperor Aurangzeb.

Some Subahdars were:

  • Mir Jumla II
  • Shaista Khan
  • Prince Azim-us-Shan
Name Reign Notes
Mir Jumla II 1660–1663
Shaista Khan 1664–1678
Azam Khan Koka 1678–1678 Known as Fidai Khan II
Prince Muhammad Azam 20 July 1678 – 6 October 1679
Shaista Khan 1680–1688
Ibrahim Khan II 1689–1697
Prince Azim-us-Shan 1697–1712

Medieval Hindu Dynasties of Bengal

Koch Dynasty (around 1515 – 1949 CE)

This dynasty ruled for a very long time, even into the 20th century.

Rulers of Undivided Koch Dynasty

  • Biswa Singha
  • Nara Narayan

Rulers of Koch Bihar

After the Koch dynasty split, these rulers governed Koch Bihar.

Some rulers were:

  • Lakshmi Narayan
  • Nripendra Narayan
  • Jagaddipendra Narayan (ruled until 1949)

Kingdom of Bhurshut (16th–18th century)

This kingdom was located in Bengal.

Some rulers were:

  • Maharaja Shivanarayan
  • Maharaja Rudranarayan
  • Bhavashankari (a Maharani, or queen)

Kingdom of Chandradweep or Basu Dynasty

Chandradweep Ruled By

Some rulers were:

  • Raja Paramananda Basu
  • Kandarpanarayan Basu

Maharajas of Jessore Region

A known ruler from the Jessore region was:

  • Pratapaditya

Maharaja of Lower Bengal Region

A known ruler from the Lower Bengal region was:

  • Raja Sitaram Ray

Maharaja of Bhawal Region

These rulers governed the Bhawal region, including areas in central Bangladesh.

Nawabs of Bengal

Independent Nawabs of Bengal (1717–1757 CE)

These Nawabs ruled Bengal independently before the British took full control.

Title Name Born Ruled Died
Nasiri Dynasty
Ala ud-Daula Murshid Quli Jafar Khan 1665 1717– 1727 30 June 1727
Mirza Asadullah Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur ? 1727–1727 April 1740
Shuja ud-Daula Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan 1670 July 1727 – 26 August 1739 26 August 1739
Mirza Asadullah Sarfaraz Khan Bahadur ? 13 March 1739 – April 1740 April 1740
Afshar Dynasty
Husam ud-Daula Muhammad Alivardi Khan Bahadur 10 May 1671 29 April 1740 – 16 April 1756 16 April 1756
Siraj ud-Daulah Mîrzâ Muhammad Sirâj-ud-Daulah 1733 April 1756 – 2 June 1757 June 1757

Nawabs of Bengal under East India Company (1757–1838 CE)

After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, the British East India Company gained much power. The Nawabs became rulers under the Company's influence.

Title Name Born Ruled Died
Najafi Dynasty
Ja'afar 'Ali Khan Bahadur Mir Muhammed Jafar Ali Khan 1691 June 1757 – October 1760 17 January 1765
Itimad ud-Daulah Mir Kasim Ali Khan Bahadur ? 1760–1763 1777
Ja'afar 'Ali Khan Bahadur Mir Muhammed Jafar Ali Khan 1691 25 July 1763 – 17 January 1765 17 January 1765
Nazam-ud-Daulah Najimuddin Ali Khan 1750 5 February 1765 – 8 May 1766 8 May 1766
Saif ud-Daulah Najabut Ali Khan 1749 22 May 1766 – 10 March 1770 10 March 1770
Ashraf Ali Khan Before 1759 10 March 1770 – 24 March 1770 24 March 1770
Mubarak ud-Daulah Mubarak Ali Khan 1759 21 March 1770 – 6 September 1793 6 September 1793
Azud ud-Daulah Babar Ali Khan Bahadur ? 1793 – 28 April 1810 28 April 1810
Ali Jah Zain-ud-Din Ali Khan ? 5 June 1810 – 6 August 1821 6 August 1821
Walla Jah Ahmad Ali Khan ? 1810 – 30 October 1824 30 October 1824
Humayun Jah Mubarak Ali Khan II 29 September 1810 1824 – 3 October 1838 3 October 1838
Feradun Jah Mansur Ali Khan 29 October 1830 29 October 1838 –1881 (abdicated) 5 November 1884

Nawabs of Murshidabad

These Nawabs held a ceremonial role in Murshidabad after the British took full control.

Title Name Born Reign Died
Najafi Dynasty
Ali Kadir Syed Hassan Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur 25 August 1846 17 February 1882 – 25 December 1906 25 December 1906
Amir ul-Omrah Syed Wasif Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur 7 January 1875 December 1906 – 23 October 1959 23 October 1959
Raes ud-Daulah Syed Waris Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur 14 November 1901 23 October 1959 – 20 November 1969 20 November 1969
N/A Disputed/In abeyance N/A 20 November 1969 – 13 August 2014 N/A
N/A Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Mirza Khan Bahadur Circa 1942 13 August 2014 – Incumbent (titular) N/A

East India Company Governors in Bengal

Governors of British East India Company (1757–1793)

The British East India Company started appointing governors in Bengal after gaining control. In 1765, they got the right to collect taxes (Diwani right).

Some governors were:

Governors-General of British East India Company (1773–1793)

The Regulating Act of 1773 changed the title to Governor-General of Fort William. In 1793, the Company took full control of Bengal.

Some Governors-General were:

Governors-General of British East India Company (1793–1854)

The Governor-General of Bengal became the Governor-General of India in 1833.

Some Governors-General were:

Governor-Generals of British East India Company (1833–1858)

These leaders were called Governor-General of India, as Bengal was part of their larger rule.

Some Governors-Generals were:

  • Lord William Bentinck
  • Charles Metcalfe, 1st Baron Metcalfe
  • George Eden
  • Edward Law
  • William Bird
  • Henry Hardinge
  • James Broun-Ramsay
  • The Viscount Canning

British Raj Era

A cyclopedia of missions - containing a comprehensive view of missionary operations throughout the world - with geographical descriptions, and accounts of the social, moral, and religious condition of (14576605978)
1855 British Bengal missions
Pope1880BengalPres2
1880 British Bengal province

With the establishment of the Empire of India in 1858, the position of Governor-General was replaced with Governor-General and Viceroy of India. Calcutta, the capital of Bengal also became the capital of India. As a result, the position of Lieutenant-Governor of Bengal was established to look after provincial matters.

Lieutenant-Governors (1858–1912)

These officials oversaw Bengal's provincial matters.

Some Lieutenant-Governors were:

  • Frederick James Halliday
  • John Grant
  • Sir Cecil Beadon
  • Sir William Grey
  • George Campbell
  • Sir Richard Temple
  • Sir Ashley Eden
  • Steuart Bayley
  • Sir Augustus Thompson
  • Horace Cockerell
  • Sir Steuart Bayley
  • Charles Eliott
  • Anthony MacDonnell
  • Alexander Mackenzie
  • Charles Cecil Stevens
  • Sir John Woodburn
  • James Bourdillon
  • Sir Andrew Fraser
  • Lancelot Hare
  • Francis Slacke
  • Sir Edward Baker
  • Sir William Duke

Governors (1912–1947)

In late 1911, the Indian Government decided to move the capital to New Delhi. As a result, the Governorship of Bengal Presidency was now necessary.

Name Took office Left office
Thomas Gibson-Carmichael, 1st Baron Carmichael 1912 1917
Lawrence Dundas, Earl of Ronaldshay 1917 1922
Victor Bulwer-Lytton, 2nd Earl of Lytton 1922 1927
Sir Stanley Jackson 1927 1932
Sir John Anderson 1932 1937
Michael Knatchbull, 5th Baron Brabourne 1937 1938
Sir John Arthur Herbert 1939 1943
Richard Casey 1944 1946
Sir Frederick Burrows 1946 1947

Prime Minister of Bengal (1937–1947)

The Government of India Act of 1935 gave more power to provinces. This made the position of Chief Minister or Premier of Bengal very important.

Writers' Building, Calcutta, India (8136102863)
Writer's Building in Kolkata, the former seat of the Government of undivided Bengal
Tomb Of Three Leader 3.A.M.R
The mausoleum of Huq, Nazimuddin and Suhrawardy in Dhaka
No Name Term(s) Party Governor Viceroy
1 Sher-e-Bangla
A. K. Fazlul Huq
1 April 1937 – 1 December 1941
12 December 1941 – 29 March 1943
Krishak Praja Party Sir John Arthur Herbert The Marquess of Linlithgow
2 Sir Khawaja Nazimuddin 29 April 1943 – 31 March 1945 Bengal Provincial Muslim League Sir John Arthur Herbert (−1944)
Sir Richard Casey (1944–)
The Marquess of Linlithgow
The Viscount Wavell
3 H. S. Suhrawardy 23 April 1946 – 14 August 1947 Bengal Provincial Muslim League Sir Richard Casey (−1946)
Sir Frederick Burrows
The Viscount Wavell
Earl Mountbatten

These three chief ministers later became important leaders in East Pakistan. Nazimuddin and Suhrawardy became Prime Ministers of Pakistan, while Huq served as Chief Minister and Governor of East Pakistan.

After Independence of India and Pakistan

British rule ended in 1947 when India and Pakistan became independent. Bengal was divided into two parts: West Bengal in India and East Bengal in Pakistan. East Bengal was later renamed East Pakistan in 1955.

Pakistani (East) Bengal (1947–1971)

Governors of East Bengal (1947–1955)

Tenure Governor of East Bengal
15 August 1947 – 31 March 1950 Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne
31 March 1950 – 31 March 1953 Sir Feroz Khan Noon
31 March 1953 – 29 May 1954 Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman
29 May 1954 – May 1955 Iskandar Ali Mirza
May 1955 – June 1955 Muhammad Shahabuddin (acting)
June 1955 – 14 October 1955 Amiruddin Ahmad

Chief Minister of East Bengal (1947–1955)

Tenure Chief Minister of East Bengal Political Party
August 1947 – September 1948 Sir Khwaja Nazimuddin Muslim League
September 1948 – April 1954 Nurul Amin Muslim League
April 1954 – 1955 Abul Kasem Fazlul Huq United Front

Governors of East Pakistan (1955–1971)

East Bengal was renamed East Pakistan in late 1954.

Tenure Governor of East Pakistan Political Affiliation
14 October 1955 – March 1956 Amiruddin Ahmad Muslim League
March 1956 – 13 April 1958 A. K. Fazlul Huq Muslim League
13 April 1958 – 3 May 1958 Hamid Ali (acting) Awami League
3 May 1958 – 10 October 1958 Sultanuddin Ahmad Awami League
10 October 1958 – 11 April 1960 Zakir Husain Muslim League
11 April 1960 – 11 May 1962 Lieutenant-General Azam Khan, PA Military Administration
11 May 1962 – 25 October 1962 Ghulam Faruque Independent
25 October 1962 – 23 March 1969 Abdul Monem Khan Civil Administration
23 March 1969 – 25 March 1969 Mirza Nurul Huda Civil Administration
25 March 1969 – 23 August 1969 Major-General Muzaffaruddin, PA Military Administration
23 August 1969 – 1 September 1969 Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, PA Military Administration
1 September 1969 – 7 March 1971 Vice-Admiral Syed Mohammad Ahsan, PN Military Administration
7 March 1971 – 6 April 1971 Lieutenant-General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan, PA Military Administration
6 April 1971 – 31 August 1971 Lieutenant-General Tikka Khan, PA Military Administration
31 August 1971 – 14 December 1971 Abdul Motaleb Malik Independent
14 December 1971 – 16 December 1971 Lieutenant-General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, PA Military Administration

Chief Minister of East Pakistan (1955–1971)

Tenure Chief Minister of East Pakistan Political Party
August 1955 – September 1956 Abu Hussain Sarkar Krishan Sramik Party
September 1956 – March 1958 Ataur Rahman Khan Awami League
March 1958 Abu Hussain Sarkar Krishan Sramik Party
March 1958 – 18 June 1958 Ataur Rahman Khan Awami League
18 June 1958 – 22 June 1958 Abu Hussain Sarkar Krishan Sramik Party
22 June 1958 – 25 August 1958 Governor's Rule
25 August 1958 – 7 October 1958 Ataur Rahman Khan Awami League

The role of Chief Minister of East Pakistan was ended on October 7, 1958. East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971.

Indian (West) Bengal (1947–present)

Governors of West Bengal

Sl. No. Name Took office Left office
1 Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari 15 August 1947 21 June 1948
2 Kailash Nath Katju 21 June 1948 1 November 1951
3 Harendra Coomar Mookerjee 1 November 1951 8 August 1956
- Phani Bhusan Chakravartti (acting) 8 August 1956 3 November 1956
4 Padmaja Naidu 3 November 1956 1 June 1967
5 Dharma Vira 1 June 1967 1 April 1969
- Deep Narayan Sinha (acting) 1 April 1969 19 September 1969
6 Shanti Swaroop Dhavan 19 September 1969 21 August 1971
7 Anthony Lancelot Dias 21 August 1971 6 November 1979
8 Tribhuvana Narayana Singh 6 November 1979 12 September 1981
9 Bhairab Dutt Pande 12 September 1981 10 October 1983
10 Anant Prasad Sharma 10 October 1983 16 August 1984
- Satish Chandra (acting) 16 August 1984 1 October 1984
11 Uma Shankar Dikshit 1 October 1984 12 August 1986
12 Saiyid Nurul Hasan 12 August 1986 20 March 1989
13 T. V. Rajeswar 20 March 1989 7 February 1990
(12) Saiyid Nurul Hasan 7 February 1990 12 July 1993
- B. Satyanarayan Reddy (additional charge) 13 July 1993 14 August 1993
14 K. V. Raghunatha Reddy 14 August 1993 27 April 1998
15 Akhlaqur Rahman Kidwai 27 April 1998 18 May 1999
16 Shyamal Kumar Sen 18 May 1999 4 December 1999
17 Viren J. Shah 4 December 1999 14 December 2004
18 Gopalkrishna Gandhi 14 December 2004 14 December 2009
- Devanand Konwar (additional charge) 14 December 2009 23 January 2010
19 M.K. Narayanan 24 January 2010 30 June 2014
- D. Y. Patil (additional charge) 3 July 2014 17 July 2014
20 Keshari Nath Tripathi 24 July 2014 29 July 2019
21 Jagdeep Dhankhar 30 July 2019 17 July 2022
- La. Ganesan (additional charge) 18 July 2022 22 November 2022
22 C. V. Ananda Bose 23 November 2022 Incumbent

Chief Ministers of West Bengal

Key: INC
Indian National Congress
BC (UF)
Bangla Congress (United Front)
CPI(M)
Communist Party of India (Marxist)
AITC
All India Trinamool Congress
# Name Took Office Left Office Political Party
1 Prafulla Chandra Ghosh 15 August 1947 14 January 1948 INC
2 Bidhan Chandra Roy 14 January 1948 1 July 1962 INC
President's rule 1 July 1962 8 July 1962
3 Prafulla Chandra Sen 8 July 1962 15 March 1967 INC
4 Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee 15 March 1967 2 November 1967 BC (UF)
(1) Prafulla Chandra Ghosh 2 November 1967 20 February 1968 Independent (Progressive Democratic Alliance)
President's rule 20 February 1968 25 February 1969
(4) Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee 25 February 1969 19 March 1970 BC (UF)
President's rule 19 March 1970 2 April 1971
(4) Ajoy Kumar Mukherjee 2 April 1971 28 June 1971 INC
President's rule 28 June 1971 19 March 1972
5 Siddhartha Shankar Ray 19 March 1972 21 June 1977 INC
6 Jyoti Basu 21 June 1977 6 November 2000 CPI(M) (Left Front)
7 Buddhadeb Bhattacharya 6 November 2000 13 May 2011 CPI(M) (Left Front)
8 Mamata Banerjee 20 May 2011 Incumbent AITC

After Independence of Bangladesh

East Pakistan became the independent nation of Bangladesh on December 16, 1971, after the Bangladesh Liberation War.

In Bangladesh, the President was the main leader from 1975 to 1991. After that, the Prime Minister became the main leader, and the President's role became more ceremonial.

Key

Political parties
Other factions
Status
  •      Acting President

Presidents of Bangladesh

N # Name
(Birth–Death)
Elected Term of office Party
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
(1920–1975)
17 April 1971 12 January 1972 Bangladesh Awami League
Syed Nazrul Islam
(1925–1975)
17 April 1971 12 January 1972 Bangladesh Awami League
Abu Sayeed Chowdhury
(1921–1987)
12 January 1972 24 December 1973 Bangladesh Awami League
Mohammad Mohammadullah
(1921–1999)
24 December 1973 27 January 1974 Bangladesh Awami League
1974 27 January 1974 25 January 1975
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
(1920–1975)
25 January 1975 15 August 1975
(assassinated in a coup d'état.)
BAKSAL
Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad
(1918–1996)
15 August 1975 6 November 1975
(deposed.)
Bangladesh Awami League
Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem
(1916–1997)
6 November 1975 21 April 1977 Bangladesh Awami League
Ziaur Rahman
(1936–1981)
1977
1978
21 April 1977 30 May 1981
(assassinated.)
Military /
Bangladesh Nationalist Party
Abdus Sattar
(1906–1985)
30 May 1981 20 November 1981 Bangladesh Nationalist Party
1981 20 November 1981 24 March 1982
(deposed.)
Hussain Muhammad Ershad

(1930–2019)

24 March 1982 27 March 1982 Military
Ahsanuddin Chowdhury
(1915–2001)
27 March 1982 10 December 1983 Independent
Hussain Muhammad Ershad
(1930–2019)
1985
1986
11 December 1983 6 December 1990 Military /
Jatiya Party
Shahabuddin Ahmed
{{small|(born 1930
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