History of the Basques facts for kids

The Basques (who call themselves Euskaldunak) are a group of people with their own language and culture. They mostly live in the Basque Country, which is a region next to Spain and France. Their story is linked to the history of Spain, France, and many other countries. Many Basques moved to other parts of Europe and the Americas. Their children and grandchildren, called the Basque diaspora, still feel connected to their roots. They often gather in Basque clubs to celebrate their heritage.

Basque Origins: A Look Back in Time

Ancient Times: Prehistory

Scientists don't know much about the Basques before the Romans arrived. But many believe that people have lived in the Basque area since the Aurignacian period, which was a very long time ago.

Many old Basque sites, like the Santimamiñe cave, show that people lived there from Aurignacian times until the Iron Age. This was just before the Romans came. It's possible that some of the same people have lived in this area for 30,000 years!

Some experts think that Basque words for 'knife' (aizto) and 'axe' (aizkora) come from the word 'stone' (aitz). This might mean the Basque language is as old as the Stone Age. However, people stopped using stone tools in the Chalcolithic (Copper Age). Also, the word aizkora might have come from the Latin word asciola.

Clues from Our Genes

Scientists have found clues about Basque origins in their genes. Basques have the highest level of Rh- blood type in the world. This suggests their genes are very old and haven't mixed much with other groups.

In the 1990s, a scientist named Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza found that Basques have a special genetic trait. He thought this trait became less common in Europe as people from the East moved in during the Neolithic (New Stone Age) and Metal Ages.

Studies of X chromosomes also suggest that Basques are direct descendants of early Western Europeans. They have the most "Western European genes." These genes are also found in nearby groups, showing they share common ancestors. However, studies of mitochondrial DNA (which is passed down from mothers) have raised some questions about this idea. A 2001 study found that the Y-chromosome (passed down from fathers) of Celtic people, like the Irish and Welsh, is very similar to Basques. This suggests a link between them.

New Discoveries in 2015

A new study in 2015 looked at Basque DNA. It suggests that Basques are descendants of Neolithic farmers. These farmers mixed with local hunters before becoming separated from the rest of Europe for thousands of years.

Scientists studied old human bones from the El Portalón Cavern in Atapuerca, Spain. These bones were from people who lived between 3,500 and 5,500 years ago. The results show that these early farmers from the Iberian Peninsula are the closest ancestors to today's Basques.

Professor Jakobsson, one of the scientists, said: "Our results show that the Basques come from early farming groups in Iberia. This goes against older ideas that they were a group left over from Mesolithic hunter-gatherers."

Basque Country in Ancient Times

Stone Age: Paleolithic Period

Around 35,000 years ago, Cro-Magnon people settled in the lands that are now the Basque Country. They slowly replaced the earlier Neanderthal population. These settlers brought the Aurignacian culture with them.

At this time, the Basque Country was part of a larger area called the Franco-Cantabrian province. This region stretched from Asturias to Provence. All parts of this region had similar cultural changes. The Aurignacian culture was replaced by Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian cultures. Most of these cultures seem to have started in the Franco-Cantabrian region. This suggests that no new groups of people moved into the area during the Paleolithic period.

In the Basque Country, people mostly settled near the Atlantic Ocean. This was probably because of the climate. Important Basque sites from this time include:

• Santimamiñe (Biscay): Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian remains, plus cave paintings.
• Bolinkoba (Biscay): Gravettian and Solutrean.
• Ermitia (Gipuzkoa): Solutrean and Magdalenian.
• Amalda (Gipuzkoa): Gravettian and Solutrean.
• Koskobilo (Gipuzkoa): Aurignacian and Solutrean.
• Aitzbitarte (Gipuzkoa): Aurignacian, Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian.
• Isturitz (Lower Navarre): Gravettian, Solutrean, and Magdalenian, plus cave paintings.
• Gatzarria (Soule): Aurignacian and Gravettian.

After the Ice Age: Epipaleolithic and Neolithic

When the Ice Age ended, the Magdalenian culture changed into the Azilian culture. Hunters started hunting smaller animals instead of large ones. Fishing and gathering seafood became important ways to get food. People also started settling in the southern part of the Basque Country during this time.

Slowly, new farming tools and methods from the Mediterranean coasts arrived. At first, there were only a few pottery items. Later, sheepherding was introduced. Like in most of Atlantic Europe, this change happened slowly.

In the Ebro valley, there are more complete Neolithic sites. Studies of human remains suggest that some people from the Mediterranean might have settled there. A similar situation happened in Aquitaine, where settlers might have arrived through the Garonne river.

In the second half of the 4th millennium BC, Megalithic culture appeared. This means people started building large stone structures. Burials became group burials, possibly for families or clans. Dolmens (stone tombs) were common, but caves were also used for burials in some places.

Copper and Bronze Ages

People in the Basque Country started using copper and gold, and then other metals, around 2500 BCE. With metalworking, the first towns appeared. One important town was La Hoya in southern Álava. It might have been a trading center between Portugal and Languedoc. Caves and natural shelters were still used, especially near the Atlantic coast.

Pottery without decorations continued from the Neolithic period. Then, the Bell Beaker culture arrived with its special pottery style. This pottery is mostly found around the Ebro Valley. People continued to build megalithic structures until the Late Bronze Age.

In Aquitaine, the Artenacian culture was important. These were archers who quickly spread across Western France and Belgium around 2400 BCE.

In the Late Bronze Age, the southern Basque Country was influenced by the Cogotas I culture. These were herders from the Iberian plateau.

Iron Age

During the Iron Age, people from the late Urnfield culture moved up the Ebro river. They reached the southern edge of the Basque Country. This brought the Hallstatt culture and the start of Celtic influence to the region.

In the Basque Country, towns were now built in hard-to-reach places. This was probably for defense. These towns had strong defense systems. During this time, farming seemed to become more important than raising animals.

New megalithic structures, like the stone circle (cromlech) and the menhir (tall standing stone), might have appeared during this period.

Roman Rule: A Time of Change

When the Romans arrived in what is now southwest France, the Pyrenees, and Cantabria, many tribes lived there. Most of these tribes did not speak Indo-European languages. The Vascones tribe is most closely linked to today's Basques. But there is evidence that Basque-like people lived all around the Pyrenees and up to the Garonne river. This is shown by Julius Caesar's writings, Aquitanian inscriptions, and many place names.

Most of the Aquitanian tribes were conquered by Crasus, one of Caesar's generals, in 65 BC. Before this, the Romans had reached the upper Ebro region in the early 2nd century BC. This was at the edge of Basque lands. Under Pompey in the 1st century BC, the Romans built Pamplona (called Pompaelo then). But Roman rule only became strong during the time of Emperor Augustus. The Romans were not very strict, which allowed the Basques to keep their old laws and leaders. Roman culture did not spread much in the Basque Country near the Atlantic. It was stronger in the Mediterranean basin areas. Many believe the Basque language survived because the Romans did not develop the Basque Country much.

There was a large Roman army presence in Pompaelo (Pamplona). The Romans conquered the area further west after a tough fight against the Cantabri (see Cantabrian Wars). There are old Roman army camps along the Ebro river and along a Roman road between Asturica and Burdigala. These camps protected trade routes.

A group of Varduli soldiers served on Hadrian's Wall in Britain for many years. They earned the title fida (faithful) for their service. The Romans seemed to make agreements (foedera) with many local tribes. This gave the tribes almost complete freedom within the Roman Empire.

The historian Livy wrote about the natural division between the Ager (fields of the Ebro basin) and the Saltus Vasconum (mountains to the north). Historians used to think that Roman culture was strong in the fertile Ager but almost non-existent in the Saltus. But new discoveries in the 21st century question this. They show that fishing (with fish processing factories) and mining were important in the Atlantic area.

The Bagaudae (groups of rebels) had a big impact on Basque history in the late Roman Empire. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, the Basque region from the Garonne to the Ebro broke free from Roman control due to revolts. Several Roman villas were burned down. Many coins were made, which suggests there was a border (limes) around Vasconia. Coins were made there to pay soldiers. After the Roman Empire fell, the fight against Rome's Visigoth allies continued.

Middle Ages: Kingdoms and Conflicts

Becoming Christian

Even though there were early Christian writings and churches, the Basques became Christian slowly. They held onto their own pagan religion and beliefs, which later became Basque mythology. They became Christian at a similar pace to the Germanic peoples who fought against the Carolingian expansion (8th-9th century), like the Saxons. It was a slow process that lasted from the 4th century to the 12th century, and some scholars even say up to the 15th century.

A Christian poet named Prudentius wrote about the town of Calahorra in the early 5th century. He reminded the town's "one-time pagan Vascones" about the Christian martyrs who died there. Calahorra became a bishop's seat in the 4th century. Its bishop had power over a large area, including parts of present-day Rioja, Biscay, Álava, much of Gipuzkoa, and Navarre. In the 5th century, Eauze was also a bishop's seat. But we don't know how much these centers influenced society.

The fall of the Roman Empire seemed to change things. After the late 5th century, Basques were no longer linked to Roman culture and city life. Paganism remained common among Basques until at least the late 7th century. However, less than a century later, Frankish writers did not mention Basque paganism when describing the Frankish attacks on Basques and Aquitanians. This suggests paganism was less common, even though mentioning it would have been good propaganda for the Franks.

Charlemagne started to settle people in Aquitaine and Vasconia after conquering them in 768–769. He used the Church to strengthen his power in Vasconia. He brought back Frankish rule to the high Pyrenees in 778. He divided the land among bishops and abbots and began baptizing the pagan Basques in this region.

Muslim writers from the time of the Umayyad conquest of Hispania (early 9th century) called the Basques magi or 'pagan wizards'. They were not seen as 'people of the Book' (Christians). In 816, Muslim writers mentioned a "knight of the pagans" near Pamplona. This might have been a Basque leader. Later Muslim historians said that Navarrese leaders in the early 9th century still practiced polytheist (many gods) religions. They also criticized the Banu Qasi for being allies with them.

Early Middle Ages: New Powers Emerge

In 409, the Vandals, Alans, and Suevi entered Hispania through the western Pyrenees. The Visigoths followed them closely in 416 as allies of Rome. The results of their advances are not clear. In 418, Rome gave the provinces of Aquitaine and Tarraconensis to the Visigoths. This was probably to defend Novempopulana from the raids of the Bagaudae (rebel groups). Some have argued that the Basques were part of these rebel groups, but this is not certain.

The Visigoths claimed the Basque territory early on. But historical records show they failed to conquer it, except for a few military wins. Between 435 and 450, there were many fights between the Bagaudae and Roman-Gothic troops. The best-known battles were at Toulouse, Araceli, and Turiasum. Around the same time, in 449–51, the Suevi king Rechiar attacked the lands of the Vascones. Settlements were damaged after these raids. While Calahorra and Pamplona survived, Iruña (Veleia) seems to have been abandoned.

After 456, the Visigoths crossed the Pyrenees twice from Aquitaine. This was probably at Roncesvalles. They tried to destroy the Suevic kingdom. But the only Spanish source from this period ends in 469, so the details of the Visigothic fights with the Basques are unclear. After this time, the Basques appeared in history as a "mountain roaming people." They were often seen as a threat to city life.

The Franks pushed the Visigoths out of Aquitaine in 507. This placed the Basques between the two warring kingdoms. Around 581, both Franks and Visigoths attacked Vasconia, but neither succeeded. In 587, the Franks attacked the Basques again, but they were defeated in Aquitaine. This suggests that Basques had started settling or conquering lands north of the Pyrenees. However, the idea of a Basque expansion in the Early Middle Ages is often questioned. Soon after, the Franks and Goths created their own border areas. These were the Duchy of Cantabria in the south and the Duchy of Vasconia in the north (602). These were meant to control the Basques.

In the southwest parts of the Frankish Duchy of Vasconia, Cantabria (possibly including Biscay and Álava) and Pamplona remained free from Visigothic rule. Pamplona was either self-governing or under Frankish rule.

After much fighting, the Duchy of Vasconia became an independent state between 660 and 678. It was ruled by Duke Felix. He joined it with the Duchy of Aquitaine. This created a kingdom that was separate from the distant Merovingian rule. This Basque-Aquitainian kingdom became very strong under Odo the Great. But the Umayyad invasion in 711 and the rise of the Carolingian dynasty threatened this state. This eventually led to its fall.

Vasconia's submission to the Franks after Odo's death in 735 was often interrupted by resistance. This was led by Odo's son Hunald and grandson Waifer. In 762, the Frankish king Pippin's army crossed the Loire river. They attacked Bourges and Clermont, which were defended by Basques, and looted Aquitaine. After several military losses, the Basques promised to obey Pippin around 769. At this time (7th-8th centuries), Vasconia was sometimes said to stretch from Cantabria in the southwest all the way to the Loire river in the north. This shows that Basques had a clear presence in Aquitaine.

Vasconia's resistance was put down. This allowed the Frankish army to focus on Charlemagne's interests in Spain. After tearing down the walls of Pamplona, Roland's army was defeated in the first Battle of Roncevaux (778) by the "treacherous" Basques. This suggests that the Basques and Duke Lupus broke their promise of loyalty from 769. After 781, Charlemagne stopped appointing dukes because of Basque uprisings. Instead, he ruled directly by creating the Kingdom of Aquitaine.

The Basque-Muslim state of the Banu Qasi (meaning "heirs of Cassius" in Arabic) was founded around 800 near Tudela. It acted as a buffer between the Basques and the Umayyads. This helped to strengthen the independent Kingdom of Pamplona after the second Battle of Roncevaux. In this battle, a Frankish army was defeated by the Pamplonese and possibly the Banu Qasi. In the western parts of Basque territory, Álava appeared in history. It was attacked by armies from Asturias and Cordoba.

After the battle, Enecco Arista (Basque Eneko Aritza, meaning Eneko "the Oak") took back power in Pamplona around 824. The Basques then managed to keep Frankish rule out of the southern Western Pyrenees. The Arista family ruled Pamplona alongside the Banu Qasi of Tudela until both families declined in the early 10th century. When Sancho I Garces became powerful in 905, Pamplona's alliances changed to their Christian neighbors. The new royal family began to expand south into the lands of their former allies.

In 844, the Vikings sailed up the Garonne river to Bordeaux and Toulouse. They raided the countryside and killed the Basque Duke Sigwinum II in Bordeaux. They took over Bayonne and attacked Pamplona (859). They even captured King Garcia, who was only released for a large ransom. The Vikings were finally defeated in 982 by the Basque Duke William II Sanchez of Gascony. He came back from Pamplona to fight north of Bayonne. This ended the Viking raids and allowed monasteries to be built all over Gascony.

William started to build closer ties with Pamplona by marrying into their royal family. Despite its new strength, the territory of Vasconia (which became Gascony) broke into different feudal regions by the 10th century. For example, the viscountcies of Soule and Labourd formed from older tribal systems. South of the Pyrenees, the Kingdom of Castile, Kingdom of Pamplona, and the Pyrenean counties of Aragon, Sobrarbe, Ribagorza, and Pallars became the main powers with Basque populations in the 9th century.

High Middle Ages: The Kingdom of Navarre

Under Sancho III the Great, Pamplona controlled the entire southern Basque Country. Its power stretched from Burgos and Santander to northern Aragon. Through marriage, Sancho also became the acting Earl of Castile and protected Gascony and León. However, in 1058, the former Vasconia became Gascony. It merged with Aquitaine under William VIII. Gascony slowly moved away from the Basque political area. The Basque people in the plains north of the central and west Pyrenees increasingly became Gascon.

After Sancho III's death, Castile and Aragon became separate kingdoms ruled by his sons. They were responsible for the first division of Pamplona (1076). Pamplona, the main Basque kingdom (later renamed Navarre), was absorbed by Aragón. The kingdom of Aragón itself expanded from its Pyrenean stronghold to the Ebro valley. This shifted its power base to the lowlands and cities. The Basque language and culture declined under the pressure of stronger city populations and the prestige of Latin (and Arabic) civilization in the Ebro valley. Basque stopped being the main language in many parts of the central Pyrenees. Romance languages, like Navarro-Aragonese, took over. The people who settled the lands conquered from the Andalusian kingdoms brought the new language, not Basque.

The kingdom of Navarre was restored in 1157 under García Ramírez the Restorer. He fought Castile for control over his western lands (La Rioja, Álava, and parts of Old Castile). In the mid-12th century, Navarrese kings Sancho the Wise and Sancho VII strengthened Navarrese power over central Álava. They did this by granting various town charters (special rights), like for Treviño (1161) and Vitoria-Gasteiz (1181). A peace treaty in 1179 gave La Rioja and part of Old Castile to Castile. In return, this agreement recognized that central Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa belonged to Navarre.

In 1199, while Navarre's King Sancho VI the Wise was on a diplomatic trip, Castile invaded and took over the western Basque Country. This left Navarre without a coastline. King Alfonso VIII of Castile promised to give back Durangaldea, Gipuzkoa, and Álava, but he never did. However, the Castilian king did confirm their Navarrese rights and gained their loyalty. They kept a lot of their self-government and native laws. All Castilian (and later, Spanish) kings swore to uphold these laws until the 19th century. Over the next decades, Castilian kings strengthened their position on Navarre's borders. They also secured new trade routes by giving charters to new towns.

Basque Sailors: Masters of the Ocean

Basques played a big role in early European trips across the Atlantic Ocean. The first record of Basques using whale oil is from 670. In 1059, whalers from Lapurdi gave the oil from their first captured whale to the viscount. Basques didn't like the taste of whale meat themselves. But they made good money selling it and whale fat to the French, Castilians, and Flemings.

After the Castilian conquests of 1199–1201 (Gipuzkoa, Durango, Álava), many towns were founded along the coast over the next two hundred years. These towns, given charters by the Castilian kings, grew rich from fishing and sea trade with northern Europe. Their coats of arms often show this. The growth of ironworks (powered by water) and shipyards also helped the Basque navy. Basque whalers used longboats called traineras. They rowed these boats near the coast or from a larger ship.

Whaling and cod-fishing probably led to early Basque contact with the North Sea and Newfoundland. Basques started cod-fishing and whaling in Labrador and Newfoundland as early as the first half of the 16th century.

In Europe, the rudder (for steering ships) seems to have been a Basque invention. This is suggested by 12th-century paintings in Estella (Navarre) and old seals. These show three-masted ships with rudders. The first mention of a rudder being used was called steering "à la Navarraise" or "à la Bayonnaise."

Magellan's expedition started with 200 sailors, and at least 35 of them were Basques. When Magellan was killed in the Philippines, his Basque second-in-command, Juan Sebastián Elcano, sailed the ship all the way back to Spain. Eighteen crew members completed the trip around the world, and four of them were Basques. Basques also mutinied in Christopher Columbus' expedition. They were a distinct group who reportedly set up a temporary camp on an American island.

In the early 17th century, international agreements hurt Basque whaling in the northern Atlantic. In 1615, whalers from Gipuzkoa in Iceland were massacred (32 of them) by an Icelandic force. This was ordered by the Danish king. The order to kill Basques was finally removed in 2015 during a Basque-Icelandic friendship event. However, northern Atlantic fishing continued until at least the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). After this, Spanish Basques lost their traditional fishing grounds in northern Europe.

Late Middle Ages: Local Wars

The Basque Country in the Late Middle Ages was torn apart by the War of the Bands. These were fierce wars between local ruling families. In Navarre, these fights became a violent struggle between the Agramont and Beaumont groups. In Biscay, the two main warring groups were called Oñaz and Gamboa. Tall defensive buildings called dorretxeak ("tower houses") were built by noble families. Few of these survive today. They were often burned down, sometimes by royal order.

Modern Times: Self-Rule and Changes

Self-Government and Agreements

Navarre Divided and Home Rule

Basques in the Spanish and French parts of the Basque Country managed to keep a lot of self-government. They practically acted as separate states at first. The western Basques confirmed their home rule after the Kingdom of Castile's civil wars. They swore loyalty to Queen Isabella I of Castile in exchange for good terms in overseas trade. Their fueros (special laws) recognized separate laws, taxes, and courts in each district.

As the Middle Ages ended, the Basques were caught between two growing superpowers: France and Spain. Most Basques ended up in Spain. The first harsh treatment in Navarre (1513, 1516, 1523) was followed by a softer approach from Ferdinand II of Aragon and Emperor Charles V. The Kingdom of Navarre-Bearn remained independent. Attempts to reunite Navarre continued until 1610.

The Protestant Reformation gained some ground and was supported by Queen Jeanne d'Albret of Navarre-Bearn. Books in Basque, mostly about Christian topics, started to be printed in the late 16th century. This was done by Basque-speaking middle-class people around Bayonne in the northern Basque Country. King Henry III of Navarre, a Protestant, became a Roman Catholic to also become King Henry IV of France. However, new ideas from the Reformation were strongly persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition. This was especially true in border areas, and it was linked to the unstable situation of Navarre.

The Parliament of Navarre in Pamplona kept complaining about King Philip II of Spain breaking his promises. Tensions grew in 1592 when an oath for Philip III of Spain was forced upon them. In 1600, there were complaints of discrimination against Navarrese monks by Castilian abbots and bishops. A mix of factors led to the Basque witch trials in 1609. These included suspicion of Basques, intolerance of their language and traditions, and the high status of women in the area.

In 1620, Lower Navarre was absorbed by the Kingdom of France. In 1659, the Treaty of the Pyrenees confirmed Spanish and French control over the borders. It also set up customs borders that didn't exist before, limiting free cross-border movement. These changes were put into place starting in 1680.

The region's special laws slowly lost their power, more so in the French Basque Country than in the southern districts. In 1660, the power of the Assembly of Labourd was greatly reduced. In 1661, French centralization and the nobility's desire to take over common lands led to a popular rebellion in Soule. This rebellion, led by Bernard Goihenetche "Matalaz," was put down with violence. However, Labourd kept important powers and self-rule, including its own tax system.

Masters of the Ocean

The Basques (or Biscaynes), especially those from Biscay, Gipuzkoa and Lapurdi, became very successful. They hunted whales, built ships, exported iron to England, and traded with northern Europe and North America in the 16th century. During this time, Basques became masters of whaling and the Atlantic Ocean. However, King Philip II of Spain's failed Armada Invencible (Invincible Armada) in 1588 was a disaster. It relied heavily on large whaling and trade ships taken from the unwilling Basques. This Spanish defeat caused the immediate end of Basque power over the oceans and the rise of English power. As whaling declined, privateering (piracy with government permission) increased.

Many Basques saw the Castilian-Spanish Empire as a chance to improve their social standing. They went to America to make a living and sometimes gained wealth. This wealth helped build the traditional Basque farmhouses called baserris. Basques serving under the Spanish flag became famous sailors. Many were among the first Europeans to reach America. For example, Christopher Columbus's first trip to the New World had Basques among its crew. The Santa Maria ship was built in Basque shipyards.

Other sailors became famous privateers for both the French and Spanish kings. These included Joanes Suhigaraitxipi from Bayonne (17th century) and Étienne Pellot from Hendaye, known as "the last privateer" (early 19th century). By the end of the 16th century, Basques were very present in America. This was especially true in New Spain (Mexico), Chile, and Potosí. In Potosí, they formed a group that fought against another group of Spanish colonists and Native Americans (1620–1625).

A Basque Trade Area

The Basques initially welcomed Philip V to the Spanish throne in 1700. But his absolute rule, inherited from his grandfather Louis XIV, clashed with the Basque system of agreements. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713 and the 1714 end of self-rule in Aragon and Catalonia worried the Basques. Soon, the Spanish king tried to increase his tax income and create a Spanish internal market. He did this by interfering with the Basque low-tax trade area. He moved Basque customs from the Ebro to the coast and the Pyrenees. This threatened their overseas and cross-Pyrenean trade, and their home rule.

The western Basques responded with a series of matxinadas, or uprisings. These shook 30 towns in coastal areas (Biscay, Gipuzkoa). Spanish troops were sent in, and the rebellion was put down violently.

After these events, an army led by the Duke of Berwick entered Spanish territory through the western Pyrenees in April 1719. They found Gipuzkoans, Biscayans, and Álavans formally accepting French rule in August 1719. Facing a loss of Basque loyalty, King Philip V gave up his plans. He moved customs back to the Ebro in 1719. A pardon for the rebellion leaders in 1726 led to an understanding between the Basque regional governments and Madrid officials. This led to the founding of the Royal Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas in 1728. The Basque districts in Spain continued to operate almost like independent republics.

The Guipuzcoan Company greatly increased the wealth of the Basque districts. It exported iron goods and imported products like cacao, tobacco, and hides. Goods imported into the Spanish heartland then had no customs duties. This lively trade led to a boom in building and the creation of the important Royal Basque Society. This society, led by Xavier Maria de Munibe, encouraged science and arts.

People continued to move to America. Basques were known for their strong community ties, good organization, and hard work. They were among the first to explore Upper California and held governor positions. At home, the need for new technologies was no longer encouraged by the Spanish Crown in the late 18th century. The forests that supplied the ironworks were almost gone. The Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas declined after its trade monopoly ended. These factors led to a major economic and political crisis.

By the end of the 18th century, Basques lost their usual trade with America. They were also hurt by Spain's very high customs duties on the Ebro river. But they still had a good internal market and strong trade with France. Navarre's trade in the late 18th century was estimated at 37.2% with France, 62.3% with other Basque districts, and only 0.5% with the Spanish heartland. The Spanish customs on the Ebro encouraged a more European focus. It also led to the spread of new ideas, like Rousseau's 'social contract'. These ideas were especially popular among Basque liberals who strongly supported home rule (fueros). Contacts between Basque scholars and public figures across the Pyrenees also grew. This increased awareness of a shared Basque identity beyond district-specific practices.

Under the Nation-States: Revolution and War

Self-government in the northern Basque Country ended suddenly when the French Revolution centralized government. It abolished the region-specific powers recognized by the ancien régime (old system). The French government wanted to make the Basque identity disappear into a new French nation. In 1793, this French national idea was forced on the people with terror. During the French Convention (up to 1795), Labourd (Sara, Itxassou, Biriatu, Ascain, etc.) suffered from mass deportations of civilians to the Landes of Gascony. There were also confiscations, and hundreds died. Some argue that the French Revolution, despite its 'fraternal' goals, actually destroyed a very participatory political culture. This culture was based on provincial assemblies.

The Southern Basque Country had constant disputes with the Spanish royal authority. These were about breaking the fueros. Talks stopped when Manuel Godoy took office. The central government started making decisions on its own. For example, it set regional quotas for military service. So, the different Basque self-governing bodies—Navarre, Gipuzkoa, Biscay, Álava—felt they had lost their rights. During the War of the Pyrenees and the Peninsular War, the threat to self-government from the Spanish royal authority was very important for war events and alliances. The liberal group that supported self-government was put down by the Spanish authorities after the War of the Pyrenees.

Manuel Godoy tried to build a separate harbor in Bilbao under direct royal control. This was seen as a clear interference with what Basques considered their internal affairs. It led to the Zamacolada uprising in Bilbao. This was a widespread riot involving different social classes. It was violently crushed by the Spanish military in 1804. The attack on the ground was joined by an attempt to discredit Basque self-government. Napoleon, based in Bayonne, noticed the Basque dissatisfaction.

Some Basques were pushed to oppose the revolution, while others saw an opportunity. A plan to create a Basque principality was not included in the 1808 Bayonne Statute. But different identities were recognized within the Spanish Crown. During the Peninsular War, two short-lived areas were created that answered directly to France: Biscay and Navarre. The Napoleonic Army, which entered Spain as an ally in 1808, initially had little trouble keeping the southern Basque districts loyal. But things changed when it became clear that the French were only serving their own interests. Meanwhile, the Spanish Constitution of Cádiz (March 1812) ignored the Basque system. It spoke of only one Spanish nation, which caused Basque resistance. In October 1812, the acting Biscayan Regional Council met in Bilbao. They agreed to send representatives to Cádiz to ask for negotiations.

This demand was ignored. The Council of Cádiz sent the military commander Francisco Javier Castaños to Bilbao to "restore order." Pamplona also refused to give full support. Navarre's representative in Cádiz asked for permission to discuss the matter and call the Parliament of Navarre. This request was also rejected. The local commander Francisco Espoz y Mina in Navarre decided to forbid his men from swearing loyalty to the new Constitution.

By the end of the Peninsular War, the maritime trade of Labourd was completely destroyed. Across the Bidasoa river, San Sebastián was ruined in September 1813. The return of King Ferdinand VII and the formal return of Basque institutions (May–August 1814) reversed the liberal rules of the 1812 Constitution. But it also led to many violations of basic fueros rules. These included fiscal sovereignty and specific military draft rules. The end of the Trienio Liberal in Spain brought the most traditional and absolute rulers to power in Navarre. They tried to bring back the Inquisition. Ironically, they ended up carrying out the centralizing plans of the Spanish liberals, but without any of the benefits.

First Carlist War and the End of the Fueros

Basques in Spain feared losing their self-government (fueros) under a modern, liberal Spanish constitution. So, they quickly joined the traditionalist army led by the charismatic Basque commander Tomas de Zumalacarregui. This army was largely funded by the Basque districts' governments. The opposing Isabeline Army had the vital support of British, French, and Portuguese forces. The Irish legion was almost wiped out by the Basques in the Battle of Oriamendi.

However, the Carlist ideas were not really about supporting Basque institutions and identity. They were about absolute monarchy and the Church. They saw themselves as true Spaniards and helped the Spanish centralizing efforts. Despite their situation and their Catholicism, many Basques started to think that strict conservatism was not helping them.

After Tomas Zumalacarregui's early death during the Siege of Bilbao in 1835, the First Carlist War started to turn against the Carlists. This widened the gap between the official Carlist party and the Basque pro-fueros parties. J.A. Muñagorri led a group that wanted to break away from the Carlist leader Carlos de Borbón. Their slogan was "Peace and Fueros." This dissatisfaction led to the 1839 Embrace of Bergara and the Act for the Confirmation of the Fueros. This included a promise by the Spaniards to respect a smaller version of the Basque self-government. The pro-fueros liberals in Pamplona confirmed most of these agreements. But they signed a separate 1841 "Compromise Act." This act officially ended Navarre's status as a kingdom and made it a Spanish province. However, it kept important rights, including control over taxes.

Customs borders were then permanently moved from the Ebro river to the coast and the Pyrenees. This destroyed the once profitable Bayonne-Pamplona trade and much of the region's wealth. The dismantling of the native political system had serious effects throughout the Basque Country. Many families struggled to survive after the French Civil Code was enforced in the continental Basque region. The French legal system took away common lands from many families and divided their family property.

The new political system also led to cross-border smuggling. Many French Basques moved to the USA and other American countries. They made up about half of all emigration from France during the 19th century. Many other Basques also left from Basque and nearby ports (Santander, Bordeaux) in search of a better life. For example, the poet Jose Maria Iparragirre, who wrote Gernikako Arbola (considered the Basque national anthem), was one of them. In 1844, the Civil Guard, a police force, was created. Its goal was to defend and spread the idea of a Spanish central state, especially in rural areas. The 1856 education reform actively promoted the use of the Castilian (Spanish) language.

The economy in the French Basque Country was weak. It was badly affected by wars until 1814 and often cut off from trade with southern Basque districts. It relied on small-scale use of natural resources in rural areas, like mining, salt extraction, farming, and wool processing. Bayonne remained the main trade center. Biarritz grew as a seaside tourist resort for the wealthy. During this time, Álava and Navarre had little economic growth. They remained mostly rural, with a small middle class in their capital cities, Vitoria-Gasteiz and Pamplona.

The old forge (ironwork) network, which relied on timber, waterways, and nearby harbors, slowly died out. But some continued to operate in northern Navarre, Gipuzkoa, and Biscay. A key moment for the development of heavy metal industry came in 1855. This was when Bessemer blast furnaces were introduced for mass-producing steel in the Bilbao area. In 1863, the Regional Council of Biscay made it easier to export iron ore. In the same year, the first mining railway line started operating. Rapid growth followed. This was helped by local business owners, the coastal location, available technical knowledge, and foreign investors. There was also high Spanish and foreign demand for iron ore. Moving the Spanish customs border from the southern Basque Country to the Spanish-French border helped include Spain's Basque districts in a new Spanish market. This protectionism helped the Basque industry grow.

The Compañía del Norte railway company reached Irun in 1865. The French railway line along the Basque coast reached Hendaye in 1864 (and Bayonne in 1854). The arrival of the railway had a big social, economic, and cultural impact. It caused both admiration and opposition. As the railway network grew, industry also developed in Gipuzkoa. This happened differently: slower, spread across different valleys, and focused on metal manufacturing. This was thanks to local expertise and entrepreneurship.

Before the Third (Second) Carlist War (1872–1876), there were tensions. The Spanish Government tried to change the agreements made after the First Carlist War. This was especially true for finances and taxes, which were key to the Southern Basque Country's special status. After the unstable First Spanish Republic (1868) and the fight for who would be king in Madrid, the Carlists became strong in Navarre by 1873. They expanded their control over the entire Southern Basque Country, except for the capital cities. They effectively created a Basque state with its seat in Estella-Lizarra. The Carlist government had its own courts, currency, and stamps.

However, the Carlists failed to capture the four capital cities in the territory. This led to their gradual military collapse starting in summer 1875. The Carlists also suffered many losses in other war zones in Spain. This helped King Alfonso XII's Spanish army win. His troops advanced and took over Irun and Estella-Lizarra by February 1876. This time, the Spanish Prime Minister Canovas del Castillo said no agreement bound him. He then issued the "Act for the Abolition of the Basque Charters." Its first article stated the "duties the political Constitution has always imposed on all the Spanish." The Basque districts in Spain, including Navarre, lost their sovereignty. They became like other Spanish provinces. But they still kept a few special rights, like the Basque Economic Agreements and the 1841 Compromise Act for Navarre.

Late Modern History: Industry and Identity

Late 19th Century

The loss of the Charters in 1876 caused political disagreement and unrest. Two traditionalist movements arose to oppose the Spanish central government: the Carlists and the Basque nationalists. The Carlists focused on strong Catholic and absolute monarchy values. The Basque nationalists emphasized Catholicism and the charters mixed with a Basque national awareness. The Basque nationalists became strong in industrial Biscay and Gipuzkoa. The Carlists were especially strong in rural Navarre and Álava.

Economically, high-quality iron ore from western Biscay was now exported to Britain for industrial processing. Between 1878 and 1900, 58 million tons of ore were exported from the Basque Country to Great Britain. The money made from this was reinvested by local business owners into iron and steel industries. This started an "industrial revolution" that spread from Bilbao and the Basque Country across Spain.

Following economic developments from the mid-19th century, Biscay developed its own modern blast furnaces and heavier mining. Industrialization also took off in Gipuzkoa. The large number of workers needed were first from the Basque countryside and nearby Castile and Rioja. But more and more immigrants came from poorer regions like Galicia and Andalusia. The Basque Country, which used to send people to France, Spain, and America, now faced a huge number of foreigners. These immigrants had different languages and cultures. Most spoke Spanish and were very poor.

The French railway reached Hendaye in 1864, connecting Madrid and Paris. The railway along the Basque coast brought more freight shipping. It also helped the seaside resort model of Biarritz spread to San Sebastián. This brought a steady flow of tourists, first wealthy ones, then middle-class ones, especially from Madrid. San Sebastián became the summer capital of Spain. The queen, Maria Christina of Austria, vacationed there, and the royal court followed. As a result, the game of Basque pelota and its betting became popular among the upper class. Several pelota courts opened in Madrid.

At the same time, many administration and customs officials moved from France and Spain. They often didn't know the local culture and were sometimes hostile to the Basque language. However, important people concerned about the decline of Basque culture started to promote initiatives to improve its status. For example, Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie was a major force behind the Lore Jokoak literary and cultural festivals. The liberal city of Donostia also became a lively center for Basque culture.

During this period, Biscay had one of the highest death rates in Europe. The poor working and living conditions of the new working class created a breeding ground for new socialist and anarchist ideas. But the end of the 19th century also saw the birth of Basque nationalism. The Spanish government's failure to follow the agreements from the end of the Third Carlist War (1876) and before (the 1841 Compromise Act in Navarre) caused public outrage. This led to the Gamazada popular uprising in Navarre (1893–1894). This helped launch the new Basque Nationalist Party, founded in 1895.

The PNV wanted independence or self-government for a Basque state (Euzkadi). Their ideas combined Christian-Democratic beliefs with a dislike for Spanish immigrants. They saw immigrants as a threat to the Basque people's culture and language. They also believed immigrants brought new, leftist ideas that were "un-Basque."

Early 20th Century

Industrialization in the Basque districts (Biscay, Gipuzkoa, north-western Álava) grew even more with World War I. Spain remained neutral. Basque steel production and export increased due to demand from the European war effort. Basque gunsmiths were very skilled. They worked in small shops and were not too worried about patent laws. This allowed them to make many handguns to fill the gap for France. Companies like Star Bonifacio Echeverria saw huge demand for their pistols. The end of the war in 1918 led to the decline and change of Basque industry. In the French Basque Country, people were drafted to help the French war effort. The war took a heavy toll on the Basques, with 6,000 deaths. It also helped French nationalist ideas spread into Basque territory.

In 1931, at the start of the Spanish 2nd Republic, an attempt was made to create a single statute (law) for the Basque territories in Spain. This was similar to the self-government recently given to Catalonia. The draft was overwhelmingly approved at first. But after meetings, Navarre pulled out of the project. The Carlist council of Pamplona claimed it was wrong to call the territory "País Vasco-Navarro" in Spanish. They said "Vasconia" and "Euskalerría" were fine, but not "Euzkadi."

Despite this, the Basque nationalists and leftist republican groups continued to work on a statute. This time, it was only for the western Basque provinces: Álava, Gipuzkoa, and Biscay. It was finally approved in 1936, when the Spanish Civil War was already happening. So, it only had real control over Biscay.

Wartime: Conflict and Repression

In July 1936, a military uprising started across Spain. Basque nationalists in Biscay and Gipuzkoa sided with the Spanish republicans. But many in Navarre, a Carlist stronghold, supported General Francisco Franco's forces. As soon as the rebels, led by General Mola, became strong in Navarre, they started a terror campaign. This was against people on a blacklist. It aimed to clear out the area behind the front lines and stop any sign of disagreement. The confirmed death toll was 2,857, plus 305 more in prison (from hunger, bad treatment, etc.). Victims and historical memory groups say the number is closer to 4,000.

Another terrible event of this war was the April 1937 aerial bombing of Gernika. This Biscayne town was very important historically and symbolically. It was bombed by Adolf Hitler's Condor Legion and Benito Mussolini's Aviazione Legionaria at Franco's command. This event was made famous by Picasso's painting. In August 1937, the Eusko Gudarostea, the troops of the new government of the Basque Autonomous Community, surrendered to Franco's Italian allies in Santoña. They did this on the condition that the lives of the Basque soldiers would be spared (Santoña Agreement). Basques (Gipuzkoa, Biscay) fled for their lives into exile by the tens of thousands. This included a mass evacuation of children on chartered boats (the niños de la guerra) into permanent exile.

After the Spanish Civil War ended, the new dictator, Franco, began to turn Spain into a totalitarian state. Franco's regime passed harsh laws against all minority groups in Spain, including Basques. These laws aimed to wipe out their cultures and languages. Calling Biscay and Gipuzkoa "traitor provinces," he abolished what was left of their self-rule. Navarre and Álava were allowed to keep a small local police force and limited tax rights.

After 1937, the Basque territories were behind the war lines. But the French Basque Country became a forced destination for Basques fleeing the war from Spain. They found themselves held in prisoner camps, like Gurs. The Armistice of 22 June 1940 established a German military occupation of the French Atlantic coast. This included the French Basque Country up to Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port. The rest of it fell under Vichy France. The entire western and central Pyrenees became a hotspot for secret operations and organized resistance, like the Comet line.

Franco's Dictatorship: 1939-1975

Two things during Franco's dictatorship (1939–1975) greatly affected life in the Basque Country. First, there was a new wave of immigration from poorer parts of Spain to Biscay and Gipuzkoa. This happened in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s. It was because the region's industries were growing to supply the Spanish market.

Second, the government's persecution caused a strong reaction in the Basque Country from the 1960s onwards. This was especially seen in a new political movement called Basque Country And Freedom (Euskadi Ta Askatasuna), better known as ETA. They started using violence in 1968. But ETA was just one part of a larger social, political, and language movement. This movement rejected Spanish control. It also strongly criticized the inaction of the Basque Country's own conservative nationalists (organized in the PNV). Even today, the ideas of these two groups, the Abertzale (patriotic or nationalist) Left and the PNV, dominate the nationalist part of Basque politics.

Following the monarchy tradition, Francisco Franco spent his summers between 1941 and 1975 at the Ayete Palace in San Sebastián.

Present Day: Autonomy and Challenges

Franco's authoritarian rule continued until 1975. The last years before his death were harsh in the Basque Country, with repression and unrest. Two new approaches appeared in Basque politics: breaking away or compromising. ETA's different groups decided to continue fighting to gain a new status for the Basque Country. The PNV and the Spanish Communists and Socialists chose to negotiate with Franco's government. In 1978, the Spanish Government issued a general pardon for all political crimes. This directly affected Basque nationalist activists, especially ETA members. In the same year, a vote was held to approve the Spanish Constitution. Groups closer to ETA called for a "No" vote. The PNV called for people to not vote, saying the Constitution had no Basque input. The results in the Southern Basque Country showed a clear difference from other regions in Spain, especially in the Basque Autonomous Community.

In the 1970s and early/mid-1980s, the Basque Country experienced intense violence. This was from Basque nationalist groups and illegal state-sponsored groups and police forces. Between 1979 and 1983, the Spanish government gave wide self-governing powers ("autonomy") to Álava, Biscay, and Gipuzkoa. This happened after a vote on a Basque statute. It included their own elected parliament, police force, school system, and control over taxes. Navarre was left out of this new autonomous region and became a separate one. Despite difficulties, Basque language education has grown to be very important in schools at all levels.

Economic changes also happened. The manufacturing industry in the Southern Basque Country collapsed after the crises of 1973 and 1979. The decline in the 1970s ended the "baby boom" and stopped the internal Spanish immigration that started after the war. The crisis left the new Basque self-governing body in Vitoria-Gasteiz facing a big challenge. They had to deal with the decline of traditional shipbuilding and steel industries, which now faced international competition. Economic confidence largely returned in the mid-1990s. This was when the government's focus on modernizing manufacturing, research and development, and quality tourism started to work. This was helped by loans from local savings banks. Cooperation between the French and Spanish sides of the Basque Country has made the area an attractive tourist destination.

The 1979 Statute of Autonomy is a law that must be followed. But powers have been given gradually over decades through new negotiations between the Spanish and Basque regional governments. Many powers are still waiting to be transferred. In January 2017, the first common administrative institution was created in the French Basque Country. This was the Basque Municipal Community. It was seen as a "historic" event by representatives.

Images for kids

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  Map of the Franco-Cantabrian region, showing the main caves with mural art

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  Horse paintings on the walls of the cave Ekain (Ekainberri), near Azpeitia

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  Cromlech of Okabe (Lower Navarre)

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  Typical round shack and settlement of La Hoya on the Ebro banks (Álava)

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  Tower of Urkulu, a commemorative Roman tower

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  Reconstruction at the site of Iruña-Veleia, in central Álava

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  Roman bridge in Ascain (Azkaine)

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  Medieval stellae collection exhibited at the San Telmo Museum, Donostia

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  The Duchy of Vasconia and neighbouring territories (740)

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  Duchy of Vasconia and both sides of the Pyrenees (760)

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  The Kingdom of Pamplone in the early 10th century

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  The Navarrese territories circa 1179

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  Basque fishing sites in Canada in the 16th and 17th centuries

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  Basque warriors in military outfit (1530s)

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  King Henry II called the Parliament of Navarre in Saint-Palais, with a requirement for all its members to have a command in Basque (1523)

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  On the whale hunt, as depicted on the coat of arms of Biarritz

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  A furnace to melt whale grease left by the Basques in Île aux Basques off Canada's coast

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  Blacksmiths dressed up in period attire at an ironwork re-enactment in Legazpi

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  Harbour of Bayonne in 1755, at the height of trade within the Guipuzcoan Company of Caracas

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  French map of the Basque districts (mid-18th century)

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  Ebro river winding down La Rioja of Álava and on into the Ribera of Navarre, both fertile grounds for vineyards and cereal crops

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  Battle of Nivelle, follow-up to Donostia's destruction (1813)

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  Embrace of Bergara, the final act of the First Carlist War (1839)

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  Railway bridge engineered by Eiffel's company over Ormaiztegi, home town of Tomas de Zumalacarregui

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  Political Spain in 1854, after the First Carlist War

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  Jose Maria Iparragirre, a volunteer with the Carlists, a bard, an exile, and an emigrant to America

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  Memorial erected in Pamplona to the traditional Laws of Navarre (1903): "We, the Basques of today, in memory of our eternal ancestors, have gathered here to show our determination to keep Our Laws"

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  Antoine d'Abbadie's castle in Hendaye

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  Launch of a boat at a shipyard in Pasaia, Gipuzkoa (1920)

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  J.A. Antonio Aguirre at a party rally in Donostia (1933)

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  Gernika in ruins after the 1937 aerial bombing by Adolf Hitler's Condor Legion and Benito Mussolini's Aviazione Legionaria

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  Traditionalist plaque at Leitza in honour of Saint Michael, a Basque patron saint

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  First edition of the Kilometroak festival in support of the ikastolas (Beasain, 1977)

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  A republican mural in Belfast showing solidarity with the Basque nationalism

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  CAF Tram in Vitoria-Gasteiz (Euskotren Tranbia)

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  Pro-peace rally in Bayonne on ETA's disarmament day (08/04/2017)

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  Tripartite meeting of the three main Basque institutional representatives with peace broker Ram Manikkalingam

See also

In Spanish: Historia del País Vasco para niños

• Basques
• Basque language
• Basque Country
• Basque Autonomous Community
• Navarre