Islamic art facts for kids

Islamic art is a vibrant part of Islamic culture. It includes all the amazing visual arts created since the 7th century CE. This art comes from lands where Muslim people lived or ruled.

Islamic art is known for its special traditions across many places and times. It often features beautiful plant designs, like the swirling arabesque. These designs are usually mixed with Islamic calligraphy (fancy writing) and geometric shapes. You can find these styles on many things, from small ceramic pots to huge decorations on mosques and other buildings.

Other types of Islamic art include tiny, detailed Islamic miniature paintings. There are also cool objects like Islamic glass and pottery. Don't forget the textile arts, such as carpets and embroidery.

Early Islamic art was inspired by Roman art, Early Christian art (especially Byzantine art), and Sassanian art. Later, ideas from Central Asia and Chinese art also influenced it. From the very beginning, Islamic art has valued the written word, especially from the Quran. This is why calligraphy is so important.

In religious Islamic art, you often won't see human or animal figures. Instead, artists use lots of calligraphy, geometric patterns, and abstract flower designs. However, pictures of people and animals were common in many Islamic cultures. These figures were often stylized, meaning they were drawn in a decorative way.

Both religious and everyday art objects share similar styles. These include calligraphy, architecture, textiles, and furniture like carpets. Everyday arts and crafts include making clothes, carpets, tents, and household items from metal or wood. Miniature paintings are also a rich tradition, especially in Persian, Mughal, and Ottoman art. These pictures often told stories from history or poetry. Many Islamic artists chose not to show living beings in religious art, focusing instead on patterns and calligraphy.

Understanding Islamic Art

The term "Islamic art" helps us group together amazing artworks. These pieces were created over many centuries in different Muslim lands. Even though the art comes from various places, it shares many similar styles and ideas. This makes "Islamic art" a helpful way to describe it.

The Encyclopædia Britannica says "Islamic arts" includes visual arts, literature, and music. It covers all kinds of art made by Muslim people. This includes art connected to their religion and art made for everyday life.

The Art of Beautiful Writing: Calligraphy

Calligraphy, or artistic writing, is everywhere in Islamic art. You can find religious phrases, like verses from the Quran, on everyday items. These include coins, tiles, and metalwork. Many miniature paintings and buildings also feature calligraphy.

Islamic calligraphy even spread beyond Muslim lands. For example, the Great Mosque of Xi'an in China has Arabic verses from the Quran written in Chinese calligraphy. Other writings include poems or notes about who owned an item.

Two main styles of writing are kufic and naskh. These scripts make walls, domes, and metal objects look stunning. Sometimes, calligraphy in paintings or sculptures is called Quranic art.

The different styles of Arabic calligraphy are central to Islamic art. They are especially important in decorating handwritten copies of the Quran. The swirling arabesque patterns often symbolize God's endless and perfect nature. Some artists even made small "mistakes" on purpose. They believed only God could create true perfection.

From the 9th to 11th centuries, pottery from East Persia had only stylish writing as decoration. These "epigraphic ware" pieces are considered very beautiful. Large tile inscriptions, sometimes raised in relief, decorate many important buildings. Carved calligraphy also adds beauty to structures.

Most coins during the Islamic period showed only elegant lettering. The tughra, a special signature of an Ottoman sultan, was used on official papers. These were often very fancy for important documents. Calligraphy was also used for short poems or Quranic verses in special albums.

The main languages for calligraphy are Arabic (for Quranic verses), Persian (especially for poetry), and Turkish. Later, Urdu also became important. Calligraphers were often highly respected artists.

Since the mid-1900s, Indonesian painters have mixed Abstract Expressionism with Islamic calligraphy. They created modern art with religious influences. The Bandung Institute of Technology is a key place for this art movement.

Painting and Illustrations

For a long time, some people thought Islamic art did not include pictures of living things. However, art with figures has existed since the early days of Islam. Rulers in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba supported this art. They were inspired by older styles from Sasanid and Byzantine cultures.

Figurative art was popular among both Sunni and Shia Muslims. Later, this type of art became less common in some Arabic-speaking lands. This was often due to changes in rulers, not always because of religious rules.

Even though not many early examples survived, human figures were a continuous tradition. You can see them in some early palaces, like the Umayyad Desert Castles. Before the 14th century, a halo often showed a ruler's importance. Later, under Asian influence, flames replaced halos as a symbol of sacredness.

Rulers were often shown on thrones with religious symbols, like the prophet Solomon. An ivory box from the 11th century shows a Spanish Muslim ruler on a lion throne. A 12th-century bowl depicts a ruler with messengers and winged jinn. Early figurative art also illustrated animal fables. Many of these stories came from ancient India and were translated into Arabic.

While wall paintings existed, especially in the Persian world, the most developed painting style was the miniature. These tiny, detailed paintings were found in illuminated manuscripts. Later, they were collected in albums called muraqqa.

The Persian miniature tradition has been very important since the 13th century. It strongly influenced Ottoman miniatures in Turkey and Mughal miniatures in India. The term "Persian miniature" refers to the language used to describe the images.

Artists like Siyah Qalam (Black Pen) often painted stories with Islamic ideas. These stories were about animal souls (nafs) and ruling souls (rūḥ). Many human figures looked like dervishes or ascetics. Animals often symbolized the wilder parts of oneself. Abstract forces to control the body were shown as demons (dīv) and angels.

Chinese art influenced Islamic painting, especially in how books were designed. Paintings often showed a "birds-eye view" of landscapes or palaces. Figures were placed at different levels to show distance. The colors were usually bright, clear, and well-preserved. This tradition reached its peak in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Beautiful Rugs and Carpets

Islamic pile carpets, also called Oriental carpets, are famous worldwide. They are used in many ways in Muslim life. They cover floors, decorate buildings, and serve as cushions or bags. Special prayer rugs provide a clean space for prayer.

Carpets have been a major export since the Middle Ages. In Europe, they were used on floors and tables. Carpet weaving is a rich tradition in Islamic societies. It happens in city factories, rural communities, and nomadic camps. In earlier times, royal courts even had their own workshops.

Very old Islamic carpets (before the 16th century) are rare. Many survived in the West and appear in European paintings. These paintings are a good source of information about early carpets. Simple carpet designs often have straight lines and geometric shapes. Some feature stylized animals.

The flowing curves of the arabesque are key to Islamic art. The mix of geometric and arabesque styles was a big part of carpet design.

Some grand Egyptian carpets from the 16th century still exist. One was found in the Pitti Palace in Florence. It has complex patterns of octagons and stars in a few colors. This style began under the Mamluks and continued after the Ottomans took over Egypt.

The Persian carpet tradition reached its peak in the 16th and 17th centuries. Famous examples include the Ardabil Carpet. Ottoman and Mughal courts also started making large, formal carpets. These carpets shared designs with other Islamic art forms. They often had a large central gul motif and wide, clear borders.

These grand designs spread to smaller carpets for wealthy people and for export. Designs from the 16th and 17th centuries are still made today. The names of carpet-making centers are often used to describe older carpets. However, designs were not always limited to one center.

Besides Persian, Turkish, and Arab centers, carpets were made in Central Asia, India, Spain, and the Balkans. Spanish carpets, sometimes with coats of arms, were highly valued in Europe. The industry continued even after the Reconquista. Armenian carpet weaving was also important. The Berber carpets of North Africa have their own unique designs.

Many villages and nomadic groups also made carpets. Their work stayed closer to traditional local designs. Besides pile carpets, flat-weave textiles like kelims and embroidered pieces were made. These were used on floors and walls. Figurative designs are popular in Islamic countries but rarely exported to the West.

Ceramics: Pottery and Tiles

Islamic art has amazing achievements in ceramics. This includes both pottery and tiles for walls. Since wall paintings were less common, tiles became incredibly detailed. Early pottery was often unglazed. However, tin-opacified glazing was an early invention by Islamic potters. The first blue-painted opaque glazes appeared in Basra around the 8th century.

Another important invention was stonepaste ceramics, from 9th-century Iraq. The first industrial complex for glass and pottery was built in Raqqa, Syria, in the 8th century. Other centers for pottery included Fustat, Damascus, and Tabriz. Lusterware, with its shiny, iridescent colors, was developed in Persia and Syria from the 9th century.

Islamic pottery was often influenced by Chinese ceramics. Chinese art was greatly admired and copied. This was especially true after the Mongol invasions and during the Timurid period. Techniques, shapes, and decorations were all affected. Islamic pottery was very popular in Europe and often copied. For example, the albarello jar, used for medicines, came from the Islamic Middle East.

The Hispano-Moresque style appeared in Al-Andalus (Muslim Spain) in the 8th century. It mixed Islamic and European designs. This style introduced two ceramic techniques to Europe: glazing with an opaque white tin-glaze, and painting in metallic lusters. Ottoman İznik pottery made some of the best work in the 16th century. It featured bold floral designs, again influenced by Chinese ceramics.

Medieval Islamic pottery also had painted animal and human images. Examples are found in Persia and Egypt.

Decorative Tiling

The earliest grand Islamic buildings, like the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, had interior walls decorated with mosaics. These mosaics were in the Byzantine style but without human figures. From the 9th century, the unique Islamic tradition of glazed and colorful tiling developed. These tiles decorated interior and exterior walls and domes.

Some early designs used tiles of a single color, cut into shapes to create abstract geometric patterns. Later, artists painted large designs on tiles before firing them. This technique required great skill.

Some parts, like letters in inscriptions, were molded in relief (raised). In Persia, some tiles even had painted animals or human figures. These were often part of designs with plain colored tiles, but with larger, fully painted tiles in between. The larger tiles were often shaped like eight-pointed stars. They might show animals, a human head, or plant designs.

The Mughals used less tiling. They preferred "parchin kari," which is pietra dura decoration. This involved inlaid panels of semi-precious stones, sometimes with jewels. You can see this at the Taj Mahal and Agra Fort. The designs are usually floral, in a simpler style than Persian or Turkish work.

Glassware: Sparkling Creations

For much of the Middle Ages, Islamic glass was the most advanced in Eurasia. It was traded to Europe and China. Islam took over many traditional glass-making areas from Sassanian and Ancient Roman glass cultures. Since early glass didn't have many figures, the style change wasn't sudden. Innovations from Persia quickly spread to Egypt. This makes it hard to tell where some pieces were made without scientific tests.

Between the 8th and early 11th centuries, luxury glass focused on surface effects. Artists carved into the glass or cut away the background to create raised designs. The large Hedwig glasses, found only in Europe but thought to be Islamic, are examples of this. These glass pieces were probably cheaper versions of carved rock crystal vessels.

From the 12th century, glass production in Persia and Mesopotamia declined. The main luxury glass production moved to Egypt and Syria. Here, artists focused on colorful effects on smooth glass. Local centers, like Hebron in Palestine, made simpler wares.

Lustre painting on glass began in 8th-century Egypt and became common in the 12th century. Another technique used threads of different colored glass worked into the surface. Gilded, painted, and enameled glass were also added. Shapes and designs were borrowed from pottery and metalwork. Some of the finest work was in mosaic lamps given by rulers. As decoration became fancier, the quality of the basic glass sometimes decreased.

Aleppo stopped being a major center after the Mongol invasion of 1260. Timur seems to have ended the Syrian industry around 1400 by taking skilled workers to Samarkand. By 1500, the Venetians were making many mosque lamps.

Metalwork: Durable and Detailed

Medieval Islamic metalwork is quite different from European metalwork of the time. European pieces often had figures and bright enamel colors. Islamic metalwork usually consisted of practical objects made from brass, bronze, and steel. These objects had simple, strong shapes. Their surfaces were highly decorated with detailed patterns. Colors mostly came from inlays of gold, silver, copper, or black niello.

Many fine brass objects from medieval times have survived. They were beautiful enough to keep but not valuable enough to melt down. Zinc was more common than tin, which explains why bronze objects are rarer. Household items like ewers (water pitchers) were made from brass sheets. They were soldered, worked, and inlaid with designs.

Using gold and silver for drinking and eating vessels was discouraged by religious teachings. Islamic metalworkers were highly respected, like artists in Europe. Many larger pieces are signed by their creators.

Islamic metalwork includes some 3D animal figures, like fountainheads. More common objects with detailed decoration include candlesticks, lamp-stands, bowls, dishes, and buckets. Ewers and basins were used for hand-washing before and after meals. They were often lavishly decorated display pieces. A 13th-century ewer from Khorasan has foliage, animals, and Signs of the Zodiac in silver and copper.

Specialized objects included knives, weapons, armor, and scientific tools like astrolabes. Jewellery was also made. Decorations were usually dense and often included arabesques and calligraphy. Sometimes they named the owner and gave a date.

Other Creative Arts

Artists also achieved great things with other materials. These included hardstone carvings, jewellery, ivory carving, textiles, and leatherwork. During the Middle Ages, Islamic art in these areas was highly valued worldwide. It was often traded outside Muslim lands.

Besides miniature painting and calligraphy, other book arts were important. These included decorative illumination, which was the only type of decoration in Quran manuscripts. Islamic book covers were also very decorative for luxury manuscripts. They used geometric patterns or sometimes figures drawn by miniature painters. Materials included colored, tooled, and stamped leather, and lacquer over paint.

Precious Stones

Egyptian artists carved rock crystal into vessels in the late 10th century. This art almost disappeared after 1040 CE. Many of these vessels are now in the West. They likely appeared on the market after the Cairo palace of the Fatimid Caliph was looted in 1062. European buyers, especially churches, quickly acquired them.

Later, especially from the wealthy Ottoman and Mughal courts, many lavish objects were carved from semi-precious stones. These had little surface decoration but were inlaid with jewels. Such objects might have been made earlier, but few have survived.

House and Furniture

Older wood carving usually involved relief or pierced work on flat objects. These were used for architecture, like screens, doors, roofs, and beams. A special exception is the complex muqarnas and mocárabe designs. These give roofs and other parts of buildings a stalactite-like look. They are often made of wood, sometimes painted, or plastered before painting. The examples at the Alhambra in Granada, Spain are very famous.

Traditional Islamic furniture, except for chests, was often covered with cushions. Cupboards were used for storage instead of cabinets. There are some unique pieces, like a low, round (12-sided) Ottoman table from around 1560. It has marquetry inlays and a large ceramic tile on top. The fine inlays on Ottoman court furniture may have come from techniques used for weapons and musical instruments. Intricately decorated caskets and chests also exist from various periods.

A spectacular wooden roof is one of the Islamic parts of the 12th-century Norman Cappella Palatina in Palermo. It combines elements from Catholic, Byzantine, and Islamic art. Other famous wooden roofs are in the Alhambra.

Ivory Carvings

Ivory carving was centered around the Mediterranean, especially in Egypt. Egypt inherited a thriving Coptic ivory industry. Persian ivory is rare. The usual style was deep relief with a smooth surface; some pieces were painted. Spain specialized in caskets and round boxes, likely for jewels and perfumes. These were made mainly between 930 and 1050 and widely exported. Many pieces are signed and dated. Court pieces often had the owner's name inscribed, as they were usually gifts from a ruler.

Besides a court workshop, Cordoba had commercial workshops making slightly lower quality goods. In the 12th and 13th centuries, workshops in Norman Sicily made caskets. Egyptian work tended to be flat panels and friezes. These were inserted into woodwork and probably furniture. Many had calligraphy, while others continued Byzantine traditions of hunting scenes. These scenes often had arabesques and foliage in the background.

Silk Textiles

While some traditions discouraged wearing silk, the Byzantine and Sassanian traditions of grand figured silk weaving continued under Muslim rule. Some designs are calligraphic, especially for cloths covering tombs. More often, designs were similar to older traditions, with large animal figures. Lions and eagles, symbols of power, were common. These were often enclosed in round shapes, like in pre-Islamic art.

Most early silks have been found in tombs or in European reliquaries. European clergy and nobles bought Islamic silk from early times. For example, an early bishop of Toul in France was wrapped in silk from the Bukhara area (modern Uzbekistan) around 820. The Shroud of St Josse is a famous silk cloth from East Persia. It had a carpet-like design with two pairs of elephants, surrounded by borders of camels and a Kufic inscription.

Other silks were used for clothes, hangings, and church vestments. Ottoman silks were less exported. Many surviving royal kaftans have simpler geometric patterns. Some feature stylized "tiger-stripes" below three balls or circles. Other silks have foliage designs similar to Iznik pottery or carpets. By the 16th century, Persian silk used smaller patterns. Many showed peaceful garden scenes with beautiful figures, sometimes from Persian poetry.

A 16th-century circular tent ceiling, 97 cm across, shows a crowded hunting scene. It was likely taken by Suleiman the Magnificent's army in 1543–45. Later, a Polish general took it at the Battle of Vienna in 1683. Mughal silks include many Indian elements. They often feature realistic plant "portraits," like those in other Mughal art.

Indonesian Batik

The development of Indonesian batik cloth is closely linked to Islam. Islamic guidelines on certain images encouraged batik designs to become more abstract and complex. Realistic pictures of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik. However, mythical serpents, humans with exaggerated features, and the Garuda from older myths are common.

Although batik existed before Islam, it became very popular in royal Muslim courts. Courts like Mataram and Yogyakarta supported batik production. Today, batik is seeing a comeback. Cloths are used for new purposes, such as wrapping the Quran.

Architecture: Grand Buildings

Unlike some other art forms, Islamic architecture was always important across the Muslim world. People invested a lot in building monuments. Because many buildings have survived, we know a lot about Islamic architecture. Early Islamic architecture used ideas from older regional styles. Later, different regional traditions developed. Innovations from one area often spread to others.

Decoration played a huge role in Islamic architecture. This decoration used the same patterns found in other Islamic art. These included arabesques, calligraphy, geometric patterns, and plant forms. Artists used carving, inlay, and painting with materials like brick, stone, tile, plaster, and wood.

A Journey Through Time: History of Islamic Art

Early Beginnings

The rapid spread of Islam in the 7th century marks the start of Islamic art. Early Islamic lands were in places like modern-day Syria. It's sometimes hard to tell the earliest Islamic art from older Persian or Sasanian and Byzantine art. Many people, including artists, took centuries to adopt Islam. Early art often featured plant motifs.

Influences from Sasanian art included images of kings as warriors and lions as symbols of strength. Local tribal traditions mixed with the more advanced styles of conquered lands. At first, coins had human figures, like Byzantine and Sasanian coins. This might have been to reassure people of their value. Later, Islamic coins only showed lettering.

Umayyad Period (661–750 CE)

Religious and public buildings were developed under the Umayyad Caliphates. New ideas and plans for architecture were put into practice.

The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem is one of the most important Islamic buildings. It shows strong Byzantine influence, with mosaics on a gold ground. Its central design is similar to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. But it also has clear Islamic elements, like a large inscription frieze. Desert palaces in Jordan and Syria, like Mshatta, Qusayr 'Amra, and Hisham's Palace, were used by caliphs. They were decorated with wall paintings to show royal luxury.

Ceramics were still simple and unglazed during this time. Some metal objects survived, but it's hard to tell them apart from pre-Islamic pieces.

'Abd al-Malik introduced standard coins with Arabic writing instead of images of rulers. This change around the time the Dome of the Rock was built shows a new direction for Umayyad culture. This period saw the birth of a truly Islamic art style.

Umayyad artists used existing styles from the Mediterranean and Iran. They adapted these to their own artistic ideas. For example, the mosaics in the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus use Byzantine models. But they replaced human figures with images of trees and cities. The desert palaces also show these influences. By combining different traditions, artists slowly created a unique Muslim art. This is especially clear in the arabesque style, seen on buildings and in decorated Qurans.

Abbasid Period (750–1258 CE)

The Abbasid Caliphate moved its capital from Damascus to Baghdad, and then to Samarra. This shift greatly influenced art. Historians compare it to founding an "Islamic Rome". Influences from Iran, Central Asia, China, and India created new ideas for Islamic art. Older styles from Byzantine Europe were replaced by those from the new Islamic center.

The ancient city of Baghdad is hard to excavate. However, Abbasid Samarra, which was mostly abandoned, has been well studied. It is known for its stucco reliefs, which show the early development of the arabesque. Designs from Samarra stucco help date other structures. They are also found on portable objects, especially wood, from Egypt to Iran.

Samarra saw Islamic art "grow up." Polychrome (multi-colored) painted stucco allowed for new styles of molding and carving. The Abbasid period also brought two big ceramic inventions: faience and metallic lusterware. Religious guidelines against using gold or silver vessels led to lusterware. This pottery was made by mixing sulfur and metallic oxides with ochre and vinegar. It was painted on glazed pottery and fired again. This expensive technique was developed to create pottery that could rival fine Chinese porcelain.

While pottery is well-known from the Abbasid period, textiles saw the greatest development. Government workshops called tiraz made silks with the ruler's name. This allowed nobles to show loyalty. Other silks were pictorial. Silk was valuable for trade along the Silk Road.

Islamic calligraphy began to decorate pottery during this time. Decorated Qurans became very important. The letter forms became more complex and stylized.

Medieval Period (9th–15th Centuries)

From the 9th century, Abbasid rule faced challenges in distant provinces. New dynasties, like the Fatimid Caliphate in North Africa and the Caliphate of Córdoba in Spain, emerged. Smaller dynasties also rose in Iran.

Spain and North Africa

The Umayyads were the first Islamic dynasty in Spain, known as al-Andalus. After their fall, various small kingdoms called taifas took over. Their art was similar to Umayyad styles. Later, two Berber tribes, the Almoravids and Almohads, ruled Spain and North Africa. They brought North African influences to art. By the late 14th century, Christian armies had reduced Islamic Spain to the city of Granada, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty until 1492.

Al-Andalus was a great cultural center. Besides famous universities, it was also a vital art center. Many techniques were used to make objects. Ivory was popular for boxes and caskets. The pyxis of al-Mughira is a masterpiece. In metalwork, large animal sculptures, rare in the Islamic world, served as water spouts. Many textiles, especially silks, were exported. They are found in European church treasuries, often covering saints' relics. During North African rule, painted and sculpted woodwork was also popular.

North African art is less studied. The Almoravid and Almohad dynasties favored simpler styles, like plain mosque walls. However, luxury arts continued to be made. The Marinid and Hafsid dynasties developed important architecture and painted woodwork.

Egypt and Syria

The Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt from 909 to 1171. They brought crafts and knowledge from Baghdad to their capital, Cairo.

By 1070, the Seljuq Empire became a major power. They liberated Baghdad and defeated the Byzantines. During the rule of Malik-Shah I, the Seljuks excelled in architecture. In Syria, local governors called atabegs gained power. They benefited from conflicts with the Frankish crusaders. In 1171, Saladin took over Fatimid Egypt, starting the Ayyubid dynasty. This period saw new ideas in metalwork and the widespread making of Damascus steel swords. High-quality ceramics, glass, and metalwork continued to be produced. Enameled glass became an important craft.

In 1250, Mamluks took control of Egypt from the Ayyubids, forming the Mamluk Sultanate. By 1261, they also controlled Syria. The Mamluks were freed Turkish and Caucasian slaves. They ruled for three centuries until 1517. This period saw many architectural projects. Thousands of buildings were constructed. Patronage of luxury arts focused on enameled glass and metalwork. This is remembered as a golden age for medieval Egypt. The Baptistère de Saint Louis in the Louvre shows the high quality of metalwork from this time.

Iran and Central Asia

In the 10th century, the Tahirids, Samanids, Ghaznavids, and Ghurids fought for power in Iran and northern India. Art was a key part of this competition. Great cities like Nishapur and Ghazni were built. The construction of the Great Mosque of Isfahan began. Funerary architecture also developed. Potters created unique styles, like kaleidoscopic patterns on a yellow background. They also made marbled decorations and painted with multiple layers of slip under the glaze.

The Seljuqs, Turkic nomads, appeared in the late 10th century. They took Baghdad in 1048. Their rule in Iran ended in 1194, but "Seljuq" art continued under smaller rulers. During their time, the center of culture and art moved to Merv, Nishapur, Rayy, and Isfahan in Iran.

Art became more accessible to merchants and professionals due to a growing economy. Inscriptions on buildings often mentioned the patrons, like sultans or officials. Many relics from the Seljuk era have survived and can be easily dated.

Ceramic innovations included minai ware and vessels made from silicon paste ("fritware"). Metalworkers began to inlay bronze with precious metals. Book painting across the Seljuk lands became more unified. These paintings featured animal figures with strong symbolic meanings.

In the 13th century, the Mongols under Genghis Khan swept through the Islamic world. After his death, his empire was divided. This formed dynasties like the Yuan in China, the Ilkhanids in Iran, and the Golden Horde in northern Iran and southern Russia.

Ilkhanids

A rich civilization developed under the Ilkhanids. They were originally under the Yuan emperor but quickly became independent. Architecture grew as the Mongols settled down. Buildings often kept traces of their nomadic origins, like a north-south orientation. A process of "iranisation" also happened. Construction of traditional "Iranian plan" mosques resumed.

The art of the Persian book was born under this dynasty. Aristocrats supported large manuscripts like the Jami' al-tawarikh. New ceramic techniques appeared, like lajvardina (a type of luster-ware). Chinese influence was visible in all arts.

Golden Horde and Timurids

The early arts of the Golden Horde nomads are not well understood. Research is just beginning, but evidence of town planning and architecture has been found. They also produced significant gold works, often showing strong Chinese influence. Much of this work is now in the Hermitage Museum.

The third great period of medieval Iranian art began with the Timurids. This was marked by the invasion of another group of nomads led by Timur. The 15th century was a golden age for Persian manuscript painting. Famous painters like Kamāl ud-Dīn Behzād worked then. Many workshops and patrons supported this art.

Syria, Iraq, and Anatolia

The Seljuq Turks moved beyond Iran into Anatolia. They defeated the Byzantine Empire in the Battle of Manzikert (1071). They set up a sultanate independent of the Iranian Seljuqs. Their power declined after the Mongol invasions in 1243. Architecture and objects combined Iranian and Syrian styles. Woodworking was important, and at least one illustrated manuscript dates to this period.

Caravanserais (inns for travelers) were built along major trade routes. These inns improved in size and strength. They also began to include central mosques.

The Turkmen were nomads who settled near Lake Van. They built several mosques, like the Blue Mosque in Tabriz. They had a big influence after the fall of the Anatolian Seljuqs. From the 13th century, small Turkmen dynasties ruled Anatolia. They slowly took over Byzantine territory. The Ottomans emerged as a major dynasty. Turkmen artworks are seen as forerunners of Ottoman art.

Islamic book painting had its first golden age in the 13th century, mostly from Syria and Iraq. Byzantine styles (blue and gold colors, angelic figures) mixed with Mongoloid facial types in 12th-century book covers.

Earlier coins had Arabic inscriptions. But as Ayyubid society became more diverse, coins began to feature astrological, figural, and animal images.

Medieval Islamic texts called Maqamat, illustrated by Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti, showed daily life. They portrayed humorous stories and had little influence from older pictorial traditions.

Indian Subcontinent

Some northern parts of the Indian subcontinent were conquered by the Ghaznavids and Ghurids in the 9th century. It became independent in 1206 when the Muizzi (slave-kings) took power. This marked the birth of the Delhi Sultanate. Other sultanates were founded in Bengal, Kashmir, Gujarat, Jaunpur, Malwa, and the northern Deccan. They slowly moved away from Persian traditions. This led to unique architecture and city planning, influenced by Hindu art. The study of objects from this period has just begun, but a lively art of manuscript illumination is known. The sultanate period ended with the arrival of the Mughals.

The Three Great Empires

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire began in the 14th century and lasted until after World War I. This long history and huge territory (from Anatolia to Tunisia) led to a unique and vibrant art. It included lots of architecture, mass production of ceramics (especially Iznik ware), important metalwork, and jewellery. They also created Turkish paper marbling (Ebru), Turkish carpets, tapestries, and amazing Ottoman miniatures.

Masterpieces of Ottoman manuscript illustration include two "books of festivals" (Surname-I Hümayun). One is from the late 16th century, and the other from Sultan Murad III's time. These books have many illustrations and show strong Safavid influence. They might have been inspired by books captured during Ottoman-Safavid wars.

The Ottomans are also known for developing a bright red pigment, "Iznik red," in ceramics. This reached its peak in the 16th century in tiles and pottery. They used floral designs that were greatly changed from Chinese and Persian models. From the 18th century, Ottoman art was influenced by European styles. They adopted versions of Rococo, which led to overly fussy decoration. European-style painting was slow to be adopted. Osman Hamdi Bey (1842-1910) was a key figure. He trained in Paris and painted throughout his career as an administrator and curator in Turkey.

Mughal Empire

The Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent lasted from 1526 until 1858. However, from the late 17th century, power shifted to local rulers and later European powers, especially the British Raj. The period is known for luxury court arts. Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu and later Sikh rulers.

The Mughal miniature began with Persian artists. A group was brought back by Humayun after his exile in Safavid Persia. Soon, local artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraits, animals, and plants were developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had achieved. Miniatures also grew in size, sometimes painted on canvas. The Mughal court saw European prints and art, which had increasing influence. This led to the gradual use of Western graphical perspective and more varied poses for human figures. Some Western images were directly copied. As local courts developed, distinct provincial styles emerged. These had stronger influences from traditional Indian painting.

The arts of jewellery and hardstone carving of gemstones like jasper, jade, rubies, diamonds, and emeralds were important. The Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl mentioned them. Many examples survive, including impressive hard stone daggers with horse-head hilts.

The Mughals were also skilled metallurgists. They introduced Damascus steel and refined local Wootz steel. They also introduced the "bidri" technique of metalwork. In this technique, silver designs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created seamless celestial globes.

Safavid and Qajar Dynasties

The Iranian Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1786. They were different from the Mughal and Ottoman Empires because their shahs made the Shi'a faith the main religion in Persia. Ceramic arts show a strong influence from Chinese porcelain, often in blue and white. Architecture flourished, reaching a high point with Shah Abbas's building program in Isfahan. This included many gardens, palaces (like Ali Qapu), a huge bazaar, and a large imperial mosque.

Manuscript illumination also reached new heights. The Shahnameh of Shah Tahmasp is a huge copy of Ferdowsi's epic poem with over 250 paintings. In the 17th century, a new type of painting developed around the album (muraqqa). These albums were created by art lovers who collected single paintings, drawings, or calligraphy by various artists. The paintings of Reza Abbasi are a big part of this new book art. They often show one or two large figures, usually idealized beauties in a garden.

After the fall of the Safavids, the Qajars took power. Qajar art shows increasing European influence, like in large oil paintings of the Qajar shahs. Steelwork also became more important. Like the Ottomans, the Qajar dynasty lasted until 1925, after World War I.

Modern Islamic Art

From the 15th century, the number of smaller Islamic courts decreased. The Ottoman Empire, Safavids, and European powers absorbed them. This affected Islamic art, which was often led by court support. From at least the 18th century, elite Islamic art was more and more influenced by European styles. In applied arts, it either adopted Western styles or stopped developing new ones.

Many old industries, like pottery in Iran, largely closed. Others, like metalwork in brass, kept the same style. Much of their production was for tourists or exported as exotic items.

The carpet industry remains large. However, it mostly uses designs from before 1700. It also competes with machine-made copies. Arts and crafts with a wider social base, like the zelligj mosaic tiles of the Maghreb, have often survived better.

Islamic countries have developed modern and contemporary art. They have very active art scenes. Many artists explore Islam-related themes and use traditional elements like calligraphy. Also, much modern architecture and interior design in the Islamic world uses patterns and elements from Islamic art heritage.

See also

• Islamic culture
• Arabic miniature
• Islamic graffiti
• List of museums of Islamic art
• Siyah Qalam