History of West Africa facts for kids

The History of West Africa is a long and exciting story. It covers ancient times, the rise of powerful kingdoms, the period when European countries took control, and finally, the time when West African nations became independent. West Africa is a large area. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the west and south to the huge Sahara Desert in the north. Today's country borders often follow old colonial lines. This means they sometimes divide groups of people who share the same culture.

People have lived in West Africa for a very long time. Early humans used tools here hundreds of thousands of years ago. Over time, different groups of people moved around and settled. As the climate changed, forests grew, and new groups of hunter-gatherers arrived. Around 12,000 years ago, these groups lived along the coast. They later moved north into areas like Mali and Mauritania.

Farming started to develop in West Africa after a period of warmer, wetter weather in the Sahara. People began to grow crops and settle down. The use of iron for tools and weapons appeared very early, around 2600 BCE. By 400 BCE, West Africans were trading with people from the Mediterranean. They exchanged gold, cotton, and leather for things like copper, horses, and salt. Important early cultures included the Tichitt culture (2200 BCE – 200 BCE) and the Nok culture (1500 BCE – 500 CE).

Many powerful kingdoms grew in West Africa. The Sahelian kingdoms were built in the grasslands south of the Sahara. They controlled important trade routes across the desert. These kingdoms were often quite spread out, with cities having a lot of freedom. The Ghana Empire started around the 3rd century CE. It was followed by the Mali Empire in the 13th century and later the Songhai Empire. There were also strong kingdoms in the forest areas.

European traders arrived in the 15th century. The Atlantic slave trade began, with people taken from West Africa and sent across the ocean. This trade grew a lot after Europeans started colonies in the Americas. Some African rulers fought wars to capture people and sell them as slaves. This supplied the demand for cheap labor. In the 19th century, many European and American governments stopped the slave trade. However, slavery itself continued in some places, like Brazil, until 1888.

In the 18th century, some religious reform movements, called jihads, started in West Africa. At the same time, Europeans began exploring the interior. Mungo Park was one of the first to explore the Niger River. Later, in the 1880s, European countries began to colonize the inland areas of West Africa. This period is known as the Scramble for Africa.

After World War II, West African countries fought for their independence. Ghana was a leader in this movement, led by Kwame Nkrumah. Most British colonies gained freedom in the 1950s and 60s. French West Africa became separate states after a vote in 1958. Since gaining independence, West Africa has faced challenges like dictatorships and civil wars. However, some countries have seen progress and modernization since the early 2000s, especially with oil and mineral wealth.

West Africa's Geography

West Africa is located west of an imaginary line around 10° east longitude. The Atlantic Ocean forms its western and southern borders. To the north is the vast Sahara Desert. The eastern border is less clear, but it's generally around the Benue Trough or from Mount Cameroon to Lake Chad.

The northern part of West Africa is mostly desert. The Sahara used to be much larger, extending further south during the last ice age. South of the desert is a dry, grassy area called the Sahel. This area is a transition zone between the Sahara and the greener Sudanian Savanna to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a wide belt of tropical grasslands across Africa.

The Guinean region is a traditional name for the coastal area along the Gulf of Guinea. It stretches north into forested tropical areas, ending at the Sahel. The Guinean Forests of West Africa are a belt of moist forests along the coast. They go from Sierra Leone to Cameroon. These forests are divided by the Dahomey Gap, a drier area in Togo and Benin.

Climate in West Africa

About 15,000 years ago, the West African Monsoon brought a lot of rain to North Africa. This created a "Green Sahara" with lakes, wetlands, and savannas. This wet period ended between 5500 and 4000 years ago, and the Sahara became dry again.

West African Culture

The borders drawn by colonial powers often cut across ethnic and cultural groups. This means that people from the same group might live in two or more different countries today. Unlike much of Central and Southern Africa, West Africa is not mainly populated by people who speak Bantu languages.

Early History: Prehistory

People in West Africa moved around a lot and interacted with each other throughout history. Very old tools show that early humans lived here between 780,000 and 126,000 years ago. Later, during the Ice Age, Middle Stone Age people lived across West Africa. They were slowly replaced by Late Stone Age people who moved in as the forests grew. Hunter-gatherers lived in coastal West Africa by 12,000 years ago. They then moved north into Mali, Burkina Faso, and Mauritania. Some continued to live as hunter-gatherers until around 1000 years ago.

During a warmer period, people in Mali started making pottery around 9400 BCE. They also used bows and arrows. These groups moved into the Central Sahara. Rock art from this time shows their culture. Hunters in the Sahara farmed wild plants and raised sheep. As the Sahara became drier, these groups moved south towards the Niger River and Chad Basin. Around 2000 BCE, a small statue called the "Venus of Thiaroye" was made in Senegal. It might be the earliest statue from Sub-Saharan West Africa. It suggests that complex societies were starting to form.

West Africa was an important place for domesticating crops and animals. People here domesticated the helmeted guineafowl and crops like yams, rice, pearl millet, and cowpeas. Over time, the remaining hunter-gatherers in West Africa joined the larger groups of farmers.

The Iron Age in West Africa

The ability to work with iron, both smelting it and shaping it into tools and weapons, appeared in West Africa very early. Iron smelting sites in Niger and Nigeria date back to 2000 BCE. Some experts believe that iron technology was developed independently in West Africa. This new technology led to better weapons and farming tools. This helped farmers grow more food. More food meant that small villages could grow into larger city-states and then into empires.

By 400 BCE, West Africans were trading with Mediterranean civilizations like Carthage. They traded gold across the Sahara with Berbers. This trade grew a lot when camels were introduced. West Africans sent gold, cotton cloth, metal ornaments, and leather goods north. In return, they received copper, horses, salt, and textiles. Later, ivory, slaves, and kola nuts were also traded.

Note: Dates are approximate. Please check specific articles for more details.      Iron Age

The Tichitt Culture

Around 4000 BCE, herders in the Sahara developed complex social structures. They traded cattle and built impressive stone structures. By 1800 BCE, this culture spread across the Sahara and Sahel. These early structures led to the development of complex societies in places like Dhar Tichitt.

The Tichitt culture existed in southeastern Mauritania from 2200 BCE to 200 BCE. People in Tichitt had a four-level social structure. They farmed cereals, used metal, built many tombs, and created rock art. They may have also domesticated pearl millet. Dhar Tichitt was likely the main center of this culture. The Tichitt culture was probably the earliest large, complex society in West Africa. It helped set the stage for the formation of states in the region.

Farming, especially of millet, was important in Tichitt as early as the 3rd millennium BCE. Iron tools and metalworking were found at Tichitt sites from the 1st millennium BCE. Copper was also used. After its decline in Mauritania, the Tichitt culture spread to the Middle Niger region of Mali. It then developed into the Ghana Empire in the 1st millennium CE.

The Nok Culture

The Nok culture existed in Nigeria from about 1500 BCE to 1 CE. Nok people may have migrated from the Central Sahara. They are famous for their amazing terracotta sculptures. These sculptures were likely part of a complex burial culture. Some sculptures show people with slingshots or bows and arrows, suggesting they hunted. One sculpture shows two people in a dugout canoe, paddling. This suggests Nok people used canoes to transport goods along rivers, possibly trading all the way to the Atlantic coast.

Later art traditions in West Africa, like those from Bura, Koma, Igbo-Ukwu, Jenne-Jeno, and Ile Ife, may have been influenced by the Nok culture's clay sculptures. Most Nok settlements were found on mountaintops. They built strong walls and stone fences around their settlements. Iron working may have developed independently in the Nok culture between 900 BCE and 550 BCE. Some modern groups, like the Yoruba, Jukun, and Dakakari, may be descendants of the Nok people.

Mouhoun Bend Community

In Burkina Faso, at a place called Mouhoun Bend, people lived in multi-family homes around 750 BCE. This community was likely part of a larger trade network across West Africa. They traded things like salt and shared new technologies. The people of Mouhoun Bend farmed, raised animals, hunted, and fished. They also produced iron, salt, and pottery. Their burial customs included placing food and goods in pits.

Djenné-Djenno: An Ancient City

The ancient city of Djenné-Djenno was in the Niger River valley in Mali. It is one of the oldest urban centers in Sub-Saharan Africa. The city was involved in long-distance trade and may have domesticated African rice. It was an important site for over 1000 years. The city was likely abandoned and moved to its current location because of the spread of Islam.

Similar towns developed along the Niger River in Mali, like Dia, around 900 BCE. The people of Djenné-Djenno were likely the ancestors of the Bozo people. Their civilization lasted from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.

The Serer People and Stone Circles

The Serer people live in modern-day Senegambia. Their ancient history has been studied through archaeology and their own traditions. Many artifacts, including gold, silver, and other metals, have been found in Serer lands.

The most famous relics are the Senegambian stone circles. These large stone monuments are found in Gambia and central Senegal. They are made of laterite blocks, often arranged in circles. Researchers believe they were built between the 3rd century BCE and the 16th century CE. Archaeologists have also found pottery, human burials, and metal objects at these sites.

Building these huge stone circles required a lot of effort. This shows that the people who built them had a prosperous and well-organized society. The builders are unknown, but some believe they were the Serer people. This idea comes from the fact that the Serer still use similar burial houses today.

The Bura Culture

The Bura culture was an Iron Age civilization in the Middle Niger River valley, in what is now Niger and Burkina Faso. It existed from the 3rd century CE to the 13th century CE. The Bura culture is named after the Bura archaeological site in southwestern Niger.

The Bura people created unique artifacts from clay, iron, and stone. They found iron arrowheads and terracotta jars. Beads, nose rings, and bracelets were also found with human remains. The Bura culture produced the earliest terracotta statues of people riding horses in the Niger River basin.

It is not clear how the Bura culture is connected to other ancient African cultures or later Islamic kingdoms like Ghana or Mali. The terracotta urns used for burials in the Bura culture might be related to the Tondidarou megaliths.

Powerful Sahelian Kingdoms

The Sahelian kingdoms were a series of empires located in the grasslands south of the Sahara. Their wealth came from controlling the trade routes across the desert. They used large animals like camels and horses to control their vast territories and for battle. These empires were often decentralized, meaning cities had a lot of freedom. The Ghana Empire, Mali Empire, and Songhai Empire all got gold from mining areas like Bambuk.

The Ghana Empire

The Ghana Empire may have started as early as the 3rd century CE. It was founded by the Soninke people near the city of Kumbi Saleh. The empire grew quickly after 800 CE, controlling much of western Sudan. At its peak, Ghana could raise an army of 200,000 soldiers.

Ghana had both city dwellers and rural farmers. City dwellers included Muslim administrators and the Ghana (king), who practiced traditional religion. The king was seen as divine. Ghana became Muslim around 1050 CE.

The empire became rich by taxing the trans-Saharan trade routes. Ghana controlled access to the goldfields of Bambouk. They took a percentage of the salt and gold that passed through their land.

By the 11th century, Ghana began to decline. One reason was that the gold trade shifted east to the Niger River. Another reason was political instability. The empire ended in 1230 CE when Takrur took over its capital.

The Sosso Kingdom

The Sosso people were the first to succeed the Ghana Empire. They built their own empire on Ghana's ruins. However, the Sosso king, Soumaoro Kanté, was defeated by the Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita in 1240. This battle led to the rise of the new Mali Empire.

The Mali Empire

The Mali Empire began in the 13th century CE. It grew to become a large, centralized state covering most of West Africa. It started when Sundiata Keita, a Mandé leader, defeated the Sosso king around 1235. Sundiata expanded his empire from the forests and Niger Valley to the Sahara and the Atlantic Ocean. He took the title of mansa (king) and made Niani his capital.

Salt and gold trade were important, but farming and raising animals were also key to Mali's success. People grew sorghum, millet, and rice. In the Sahel, they grazed cattle, sheep, goats, and camels. Mali society was organized around villages. A group of villages formed a kafu, ruled by a farma, who paid tribute to the mansa. A strong army kept order.

Converting to Islam was a slow process. Early mansas respected traditional beliefs. Later mansas were devout Muslims but still honored traditional gods. Islam became important in the court under Sundiata's son, Uli I, who made a pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslim scholars and accountants worked at the court. The traveler Ibn Battuta wrote detailed descriptions of the empire.

The Mali Empire saw a growth in learning and literacy. In 1285, Sakura became mansa. He drove the Tuareg out of Timbuktu and made it a center of learning and trade. The book trade grew, and copying books became a respected job. Mansa Musa I founded a university in Timbuktu. He also started a program of free healthcare and education, bringing doctors and scholars from his famous pilgrimage to Mecca. Timbuktu and Djenné became important centers of Islamic learning.

The University of Sankore in Timbuktu was a major center for higher education. It included the Mosque of Sankore, the Mosque of Sidi Yahya, and the Mosque of Djinguereber.

Mali was strongest in the 14th century under Mansa Musa. He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca with a huge amount of gold. His journey made a big impression on the Muslim and European worlds. He invited scholars and architects to further connect Mali with the Islamic world.

After the reign of Mansa Suleyman (1341–1360), Mali began to decline. Neighboring groups like the Mossi and Tuareg attacked its borders. The Fulani also gained power in the west. In the 15th century, the city-state of Gao became independent and formed the Songhai Empire. The Songhai Empire eventually took over Mali's capital in 1545. After 1599, the Mali Empire lost its goldfields and broke into smaller states.

The Songhai Empire

The Songhai people were originally fishermen on the Middle Niger River. They established their capital at Kukiya in the 9th century CE and later at Gao in the 12th century. They speak a Nilo-Saharan language.

Sonni Ali, a Songhai leader, began his conquests by capturing Timbuktu from the Tuareg in 1468. He expanded the empire north into the desert and southwest to Djenné. His army included cavalry and a fleet of canoes. Sonni Ali was not a Muslim, and Arab scholars often wrote negatively about him. After his death in 1492, his nephew and general, Muhammad Ture, took over.

Muhammad Ture (1493–1528) founded the Askiya dynasty. He strengthened Sonni Ali's conquests. He used Islam to increase his power, declaring jihad against the Mossi and reviving trans-Saharan trade. He made Timbuktu a great center of Islamic learning. Muhammad Ture expanded the empire further and brought the Hausa states into the Songhai trade network. He also centralized the empire's administration, making it very stable. The traveler Leo Africanus wrote vivid descriptions of the empire under Askiya Muhammad.

In 1591, Morocco invaded the Songhai Empire to control the goldfields. At the Battle of Tondibi, the Songhai army was defeated. The Moroccans captured Djenné, Gao, and Timbuktu. However, they could not control the entire region. The Songhai army regrouped and fought a guerrilla war, which drained Moroccan resources. The Songhai Empire split into several smaller states in the 17th century.

Morocco found its venture unprofitable. The gold trade shifted to Europeans on the coast. The trans-Saharan trade moved east to Bornu. The Moroccans who stayed married into the local population and were called Arma. They became a military class in Timbuktu, independent from Morocco. Other groups, like the Fulani and Bambara Empire, also began to assert themselves.

The Sokoto Caliphate

The Fulani were a nomadic group who converted to Islam by the 14th century. They settled in various parts of West Africa. In the 1670s, they started jihads against non-Muslims. Several states were formed from these wars, including the Sokoto Caliphate (or Fulani Empire).

In the city of Gobir, Usman dan Fodio (1754–1817) accused the Hausa leaders of not practicing pure Islam. In 1804, he launched the Fulani War, a jihad that gained strong support from both Fulani and Hausa people who were unhappy with high taxes. Usman created a large empire that included parts of Nigeria, Benin, and Cameroon, with Sokoto as its capital. He later retired to teach and write, passing the empire to his son Muhammed Bello. The Sokoto Caliphate lasted until 1903 when the British conquered northern Nigeria.

Forest Empires and States

Akan Kingdoms and the Asante Empire

The Akan people speak a Kwa language. They are believed to have come from East or Central Africa before settling in the Sahel. By the 11th century, the Akan Kingdom of Bonoman (Bono State) was established. Bonoman was a trading state created by the Bono people. It is considered the origin of many Akan subgroups who later moved to create new Akan states in search of gold. The gold trade, which boomed in Bonoman in the 12th century, was the source of Akan power and wealth. When gold mines in Mali started to run out in the 13th century, Bonoman and other Akan states became major players in the gold trade.

Bonoman gave rise to several Akan kingdoms like Mankessim, Denkyira, Akyem, and Akwamu. Later, the Empire of Ashanti was founded. By the 17th century, an Akan group called Kwaaman lived north of Lake Bosumtwi. They earned money by trading gold and kola nuts and growing yams. They built towns and formed alliances for defense, paying tribute to stronger Akan states like Denkyira. In the 16th century, the Ashante society changed a lot. Their population grew due to new crops like cassava and maize, and the gold trade increased.

By the 17th century, Osei Kofi Tutu I (around 1695–1717), with the help of Okomfo Anokye, united the Ashante into a confederation. The Golden Stool became a symbol of their unity. Osei Tutu expanded the territory greatly. He built a strong Ashante army, based on the Akwamu state's military. In 1701, the Ashante conquered Denkyira, which gave them access to trade with Europeans on the coast. Opoku Ware I (1720–1745) expanded the empire further, adding southern Akan states and northern states like Techiman and Dagomba. This gave them control of important trade routes. Later rulers continued to expand and strengthen the empire. At its peak, the Ashante Empire covered most of present-day Ghana and parts of Côte d'Ivoire.

The Ashantehene (king) inherited his position from his mother. He was helped by a civil service of talented people in trade, diplomacy, and the military. This civil service included people from Arabia, Sudan, and Europe. A special police force, the ankobia, served as bodyguards and gathered intelligence. A network of well-maintained roads connected the empire, from the coast to the Middle Niger.

The Ashante Empire remained powerful for most of the 19th century. However, it was eventually taken over by the British Empire in 1900 after several Anglo-Ashanti wars.

The Dahomey Kingdom

The Dahomey Kingdom was founded in the early 17th century CE. The Aja people moved north and settled among the Fon, then began to assert their power. They established the Kingdom of Dahomey with its capital at Agbome. King Houegbadja (around 1645–1685) organized Dahomey into a powerful, centralized state. He declared that all land belonged to the king and was subject to taxes. He also established a "cult of kingship," where a captured slave was sacrificed yearly to honor royal ancestors.

In the 1720s, Dahomey conquered the slave-trading states of Whydah and Allada. This gave them direct access to the slave coast and trade with Europeans. King Agadja (1708–1740) tried to stop the slave trade and use slaves on palm oil plantations. However, the profits from slaves and Dahomey's need for firearms were too great. In 1730, the Oyo Empire conquered Dahomey, and Dahomey had to pay tribute. Taxes on slaves were often paid in cowrie shells. In the 19th century, palm oil became the main trading product. France conquered Dahomey during the Second Franco-Dahomean War (1892–1894). Most of the soldiers who fought against Dahomey were native Africans.

The Yoruba Kingdoms

The Yoruba people traditionally saw themselves as part of a united empire. The name "Yoruba" comes from a Hausa word for the Oyo Empire. The first Yoruba state was Ilé-Ifẹ̀, founded around 1000 CE by a figure named Oduduwa. His sons founded different Yoruba city-states, and his daughters became mothers of the various Yoruba obas (kings). Yoruba city-states were usually ruled by an oba and a council of chiefs called iwarefa. By the 18th century, the Yoruba city-states formed a loose group, with the oni of Ifẹ̀ as the leader. Over time, individual city-states became more powerful, and their obas gained more spiritual authority, reducing the oni's power.

The Oyo state was conquered in 1550 by the Nupe kingdom, which had cavalry. The king of Oyo, Orompoto, went into exile. After returning, he built a strong army with heavily armed cavalry. This made them very powerful in the northern grasslands and forests. By the end of the 16th century, Oyo had expanded its territory to include parts of the Niger region, Togo, Dahomey, and the Fon nation.

A governing council helped rule the empire. Each conquered region had a local administrator. Oyo, as a northern Yoruba kingdom, was a middleman in the north–south trade. It connected the eastern forest of Guinea with the western and central Sudan, the Sahara, and North Africa. The Yoruba made cloth, ironware, and pottery. They traded these for salt, leather, and horses from the Sudan to maintain their cavalry. Oyo remained strong for 200 years. It became a British protectorate in 1888 and then broke into warring groups. The Oyo state ceased to be a power in 1896.

The Benin Empire

The Benin Empire was ruled by the Edo people. By the mid-15th century, it was expanding and consolidating its power. Under Oba (king) Ewuare (around 1450–1480 CE), the state was organized for conquest. He strengthened central authority and fought wars with his neighbors for 30 years. When he died, the Benin Empire stretched to Dahomey in the west, the Niger Delta in the east, and along the West African coast.

The oba ruled with advice from the uzama, a council of powerful family chiefs. Later, administrative officials reduced the uzama's power. Oba Esigie (1504–1550) increased trade with Europeans, especially the Portuguese, who provided copper for court art. After the 16th century, Benin mainly exported pepper, ivory, gum, and cotton cloth to the Portuguese and Dutch.

Women also held political power in the empire. For example, the queen-mother, who gave birth to a future oba, had great political influence. Benin was not a major exporter of slaves. By the early 1700s, the empire faced internal conflicts and civil wars. It regained much of its power under later obas. In 1897, the British attacked and sacked Benin City.

The Sungbo's Eredo and the walls of Benin were built in the 1st millennium CE, before the 10th century CE.

Niger Delta and Igbo Kingdoms

The Niger Delta had many city-states with different types of government. Some, like Bonny, Kalabari, and Warri, had kings. Others, like Brass, were republics with small senates. Those at Cross River and Old Calabar were ruled by merchants of the ekpe society. This society regulated trade. The region changed a lot due to trade in the 17th century CE.

The Igbo mainly lived east of the delta. The Igbo Kingdom of Nri rose in the 10th century CE, led by an Eze Nri. It was a political group of autonomous villages, each with its own territory. Villages were democratic, with all males (and sometimes females) involved in decisions. Graves at Igbo-Ukwu (800 CE) contained brass artifacts and glass beads from Egypt or India, showing trade with other regions.

The Aro Confederacy was a political union of the Aro people, centered in the Arochukwu Kingdom in southeastern Nigeria. It was founded in the late 16th century. By the 18th and 19th centuries, its influence spread across eastern Nigeria and into parts of the Niger Delta.

Slave Trade in West Africa

After the Songhai Empire fell in the 16th century CE, many smaller states appeared across West Africa. These included the Bambara Empire of Ségou and the kingdom of Kaarta.

European traders first arrived in the region in the 15th century. The Portuguese set up a trading post at Arguin Island in 1445. By 1475, they reached the Bight of Benin. The Atlantic slave trade began almost immediately. The Portuguese took hundreds of captives back to their country as slaves. This trade grew hugely after Christopher Columbus' voyages to the Americas. There was a great demand for cheap labor in the new colonies. In 1510, Spain joined the Atlantic slave trade, followed by other European countries. By 1650, the slave trade was very active along the West African coast. Over the next centuries, it severely slowed population and economic growth in the region. The expanding slave trade led to large populations of West Africans living in the Americas.

As the demand for slaves increased, some African rulers constantly fought their neighbors to capture more people. States like Dahomey and the Bamana Empire based much of their economy on trading slaves for European goods, especially firearms. They then used these firearms to capture more slaves. In the 19th century, European and American governments abolished the Atlantic slave trade. However, slavery in the Americas continued until Brazil abolished it in 1888. Today, descendants of West Africans make up large parts of the population in Brazil, the Caribbean, and the United States.

The Colonial Period

In 1725, the Fulani people of Fouta Djallon started a major reform movement, overthrowing local leaders and trying to make their society more democratic. A similar movement happened in Nigeria under Usman dan Fodio. He preached against what he saw as impure Islam and gained wide support. His Fulani Empire became one of the largest states in the region.

At the same time, Europeans began exploring the interior of Africa. Scottish explorer Mungo Park was one of the first to explore the Niger River as far as Timbuktu. French armies followed later. In 1774, it was noted that Africa's long coastline and deep rivers were not being used for trade.

The Scramble for Africa

In the 1880s, during the Scramble for Africa, European countries began to colonize the inland areas of West Africa. Before this, they mostly controlled trading ports along the coasts. Samori Ture's Wassoulou Empire was the last to fall. With his capture in 1898, military resistance to French colonial rule largely ended.

France became the dominant colonial power in West Africa, followed by Britain. Germany, Spain, and Portugal also had small colonies. Only Liberia remained independent before 1958. After the slave trade ended, Denmark and the Netherlands sold their small holdings.

Britain operated from four small colonies: Sierra Leone, the Gold Coast, Lagos, and the Niger. British trade in tropical products was significant. There were no permanent British settlers or military bases. The posts were mainly for trade and as stopping points. Britain also made agreements with local tribes who needed protection from the expanding Ashanti tribes. Britain fought several Anglo-Ashanti wars in the Gold Coast.

French ambitions in West Africa were much larger. They wanted to rebuild the French Empire and bring new populations into French civilization and Catholicism. They dreamed of a vast African empire, expanding south from the Mediterranean, east towards the Nile, and south towards the Congo.

The Post-Colonial Period

After World War II, movements for independence grew across West Africa. Ghana, led by Kwame Nkrumah, was a key leader. Ghana became the first Sub-Saharan African country to gain independence in 1957. Guinea followed in 1958. After years of protests and clashes, French West Africa voted for autonomy in 1958, dividing into today's states. Most British colonies gained independence in the next decade. In 1960, known as the Year of Africa, nine West African countries became independent. Many founding leaders, like Nkrumah and Léopold Sédar Senghor, strengthened their power in the 1960s. They sometimes reduced democratic institutions. In 1973, Guinea-Bissau declared independence from Portugal.

West African politics since independence has often involved African socialism. Leaders like Senghor, Nkrumah, and Sekou Touré supported this idea. In 1983, socialist Thomas Sankara came to power in Burkina Faso.

Since independence, West Africa has faced challenges common to much of Africa. These include dictatorships, political corruption, and military coups. For example, Étienne Eyadéma of Togo was one of the world's longest-ruling dictators when he died in 2005. International conflicts have been rare, with the Agacher Strip War between Mali and Burkina Faso being an exception.

Civil Wars in West Africa

West Africa has experienced several civil wars recently. These include the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970), two civil wars in Liberia (1989–1997 and 1999–2003), a long conflict in Sierra Leone (1991–2002), the Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–1999), and two conflicts in Côte d'Ivoire (2002–2007 and 2010–2011).

Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970)

After gaining independence from the British Empire in 1963, Nigeria established its First Republic. This republic was influenced by British democracy. However, it fell in 1966 after a military coup. This increased tensions between northern and southern Nigeria. The military governor of southeastern Nigeria, Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu-Ojukwu, declared the region independent as the Republic of Biafra. He cited massacres and election fraud.

Northern Nigeria opposed this secession. The Nigerian government sent its armed forces to take back Biafra. Nigerian forces successfully captured several cities. Their military had an advantage. By 1970, General Chukwuemeka Odumegwu fled, and Biafra surrendered due to lack of resources. The state officially reunited with northern Nigeria on January 15, 1970. The conflict is estimated to have killed about 1 million people.

First Liberian Civil War (1989–1997)

The First Liberian Civil War was an internal conflict in Liberia from 1989 to 1997. About 250,000 people died. The conflict led to the involvement of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the United Nations. The peace did not last long, as the Second Liberian Civil War broke out in 1999.

In 1980, Samuel Doe led a coup that overthrew the elected government. In 1985, he held elections that many considered unfair. This led to an unsuccessful coup attempt. In December 1989, former government minister Charles Taylor started an uprising to overthrow Doe. Taylor's group, the National Patriotic Front of Liberia (NPFL), soon split. His group and Prince Johnson's rebel group fought for control of the capital, Monrovia. In 1990, Johnson took control of the capital and executed Doe.

Second Liberian Civil War (1999–2003)

The Second Liberian Civil War began in 1999. A rebel group called the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), supported by Guinea, emerged in northern Liberia. In early 2003, another rebel group, the Movement for Democracy in Liberia (MODEL), appeared in the south. By mid-2003, Charles Taylor's government controlled only a third of the country.

The capital, Monrovia, was attacked by LURD. Their shelling killed many civilians. Thousands of people were forced to leave their homes. The Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed on August 18, 2003. This ended the conflict and started Liberia's transition to democracy. An interim government led by Gyude Bryant took over until the 2005 elections.

Sierra Leone Civil War (1991–2002)

The civil war in Sierra Leone began on March 23, 1991. It was an attempt to overthrow President Joseph Saidu Momoh. The rebels were called the Revolutionary United Front (RUF), led by Foday Sankoh. The Sierra Leone Army (SLA) was sent to fight the RUF.

By 1992, President Joseph Momoh was overthrown by a military coup led by Captain Valentine Strasser. Captain Strasser soon established multi-party democratic elections. On January 18, 2002, former president Kabbah officially ended the civil war. During the 11-year conflict, about 50,000 Sierra Leoneans were killed, and 2,000,000 were displaced.

Guinea-Bissau Civil War (1998–1999)

Before the civil war, Brigadier General Ansumane Mané attempted a coup. Mané blamed President Joao Bernardo Vieira for poverty and corruption in Guinea Bissau. President Vieira, controlling the armed forces, fired Mané for allegedly supplying Senegalese rebels.

On June 7, 1998, a second coup attempt began, which also failed. Soon after, rebels received aid from Senegal and Guinea-Conakry. This sparked a civil war. Many soldiers in Guinea-Bissau's armed forces joined the rebels, partly because the government was not paying them. The rebels fought from 1998 to 1999. President Vieira was overthrown on May 7, 1999. The war ended on May 10, 1999, when President Vieira signed an unconditional surrender. Approximately 655 people were killed in the conflict.

First Ivorian Civil War (2002–2007)

In the early 2000s, the Ivory Coast (also known as Côte d'Ivoire) experienced an economic downturn. This led to political division between the mostly Muslim north and the mostly Christian south. The southern Ivory Coast was controlled by the government, while the north was under rebel control. The civil war officially began on September 19, 2002, when rebels launched attacks on the south, mainly targeting Abidjan. Northern rebels were successful. President Robert Guéï was killed during the rebellions.

The south retaliated with military action. France supported the south and sent 2,500 soldiers to the region, calling for United Nations action. French involvement was called Opération Licorne. By 2004, most fighting stopped. On March 4, 2007, the civil war officially ended with a peace treaty.

Health in West Africa

Traditional Medicine

Traditional African medicine is a holistic practice. It combines local herbalism with African spirituality. Practitioners claim to cure various conditions. In the past, modern science often saw traditional methods as primitive. During colonial rule, traditional healers were sometimes outlawed. They were seen as practicing witchcraft and declared illegal. Attempts were also made to control the sale of herbal medicines. As colonialism and Christianity spread, hospitals were built, hoping to fight diseases. Little was done to study traditional practices, as many foreigners thought they were superstitious.

In recent years, traditional African medicine has gained more appreciation from Western researchers. Developing countries have realized the high costs of modern health care systems. Because of this, there is growing interest in adding traditional African medicine to national healthcare systems.

Diseases in West Africa

Disease has always been a challenge for human development in West Africa. The tropical rainforest environment allows many single-cell organisms, parasites, and bacteria to thrive. Before the slave trade, West Africans tried to maintain ecological balance. They controlled vegetation and game, which helped minimize local diseases. The increase in warfare due to the slave trade meant this balance could not be kept. Endemic diseases became widespread epidemics. Genetic changes, like sickle cell, developed around 700 CE in the Kwa forest farmers. This provided some protection from malaria.

Ebola Virus Disease

Ebola virus disease, first found in 1976, usually appears in outbreaks in tropical Sub-Saharan Africa, including West Africa. The largest outbreak was the 2014 West Africa Ebola virus outbreak. It affected Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Nigeria. The outbreak started in Guinea in December 2013. It was not detected until March 2014, and then spread. This outbreak was caused by the Zaire ebolavirus. It was the most severe Ebola outbreak since the virus was discovered in 1976.

As of August 16, 2014, the World Health Organization (WHO) reported 2,240 suspected cases and 1,229 deaths. On August 8, WHO officially declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern. This is a rare legal designation used only twice before. It means 194 countries must take legal measures for disease prevention and control. Various aid organizations and international bodies, like ECOWAS and the US CDC, donated funds and sent personnel. Charities like Médecins Sans Frontières and the Red Cross also worked in the area.

Famine in West Africa

Famine has been an occasional but serious problem in West Africa. In the 1680s, famine spread across the entire Sahel. In 1738, half the population of Timbuktu died from famine. Some colonial actions, like forcing farmers to grow cash crops such as cotton, sometimes made peasants poorer. This made them more vulnerable to famine during droughts, like in 1913.

From 1967 to 1969, a large famine occurred in Biafra and Nigeria. This was due to a government blockade during the Nigerian Civil War. An estimated 1.5 million people died from starvation. Also, drought and other government actions caused 500,000 Africans to die in Central and West Africa. Famine returned in the 1970s and 1980s when the West African Sahel suffered from drought.

Since the early 2000s, better early warning systems and humanitarian responses have greatly reduced deaths from famine. However, many African countries do not produce enough food for themselves. They rely on income from cash crops to import food. Farming in Africa is affected by climate changes, especially droughts. Other problems include poor soil, land degradation, erosion, desert locust swarms, and livestock diseases. The Sahara desert is also spreading. The most serious famines have been caused by a mix of drought, poor economic policies, and conflict.

Recent famines include the 2005–06 Niger food crisis and the 2010 Sahel famine. In 2012, a Sahel drought put over ten million people at risk of famine due to a month-long heatwave.

West African Cuisine

West African people traded with the Arab world for centuries before Europeans arrived. Spices like cinnamon were introduced and became part of local cooking. Later, European explorers and slave traders influenced regional cuisines a little. European ships brought chili peppers and tomatoes from the New World to West Africa. Both became very common in West African dishes, along with peanuts, maize, cassava, and plantains. In return, these ships carried African ingredients like black-eyed peas and okra to the New World.

During the colonial period, European settlers drew borders without considering existing territories or cultural differences. This split tribes and created colonies with different cooking styles. So, it is hard to define, for example, Senegalese cuisine very strictly. Even though European colonists brought many new ingredients, they had little impact on how people cooked in West Africa.

Architecture in West Africa

You can find more information about architecture in West Africa in these sections:

• Prehistoric West African Architecture
• Ancient West African Architecture
• Medieval West African Architecture

Science and Technology in West Africa

You can find more information about science and technology in West Africa in these sections:

Timeline of Archaeological Cultures and Sites

• Ounjougou (Middle Pleistocene)
• Ugwuele (1,600,000 BP - 95,000 BP)
• Mousteroid (30,000 BP)
• Bingerville (13,000 BP)
• Bosumpra Cave (11th millennium BCE)
• Iwo Eleru Rockshelter (11,000 BP)
• Kiffian Culture (8400 BCE)
• Ifetedo Rockshelter (9000/7000 BP)
• Dutsen Kongba Rockshelter (6th millennium BCE)
• Konduga (6300 BP)
• Ita Ogbolu Rockshelter (5000/2000 BP)
• Kagoro Rockshelter (5000/2000 BP)
• Tenerian Culture (4300 BCE - 2400 BCE)
• Yengema Cave (2560 BCE)
• Kamabai Rockshelter (2560 BCE)
• Kintampo Complex (2500 BCE - 1400 BCE)
• Karkarichinkat (4500/4200 BP)
• Rim (4000 BP)
• Dhar Tichitt (2000 BCE - 500 BCE)
• Dhar Walata (2000 BCE – 500 BCE)
• Dhar Nema (2000 BCE - 800 BCE)
• Daima (2nd millennium BCE – 16th/17th century CE)
• Sekkiret (2nd millennium BCE)
• Lejja (2000 BCE)
• Gajiganna (1800 BCE - 800 BCE)
• Nok Culture (1500 BCE – 1 BCE)
• Yagala Rockshelter (1070 BCE)
• Mouhoun Bend (1st millennium BCE)
• Kissi (1st millennium BCE – 13th century CE)
• Azelik (1st millennium BCE)
• Dia (9th century BCE)
• Walalde (800 BCE)
• Kursakata (800 BCE)
• Zilum (7th/5th century BCE)
• Opi (5th century BCE)
• Senegambian Stone Circles (3rd century BCE – 16th century CE)
• Itaakpa Rockshelter (271 BCE)
• Djenne-Djenno (250 BCE – 1100 CE)
• Afikpo Rockshelter (105 BCE)
• Akjoujt (1st century BCE)
• Rop Rockshelter (25 BCE)
• Kirikongo (100 CE - 1700 CE)
• Hambarketolo (300 CE - 1000 CE)
• Bura Culture (3rd century CE - 13th century CE)
• Birnin Lafiya (4th century CE – 13th century CE)
• Niani (6th/10th century CE)
• Tondidarou (635/670 CE)
• Gao (700 CE)
• Tegdaoust (810 CE – 1800 CE)
• Chinguetti (8th century CE)
• Tissalaten (8th century CE – 11th century CE)
• Toyla (890/980 CE)
• Igbo-Ukwu (9th century CE)
• Koumbi Saleh (9th century CE – 15th century CE)
• Kawinza (950/715 CE)
• Begho (1000 CE)
• Walls of Benin (1st millennium CE)
• Sungbo's Eredo (10th century CE)
• Diouboye (1000 CE – 1400 CE)
• Azugi (11th century CE)
• Cekeen Tumuli (11th century CE)
• Ouadane (11th/12th century CE)
• Bandiagara Escarpment (11th century CE – 13th century CE)
• Ruins of Loropeni (11th century CE – 17th century CE)
• Ma'adin Ijafen (1170/1260 CE)
• Ifẹ (12th century CE - 15th century CE)
• Kwiambana (1260 CE)
• Mejiro Rockshelter (1300 CE)
• Benin (13th century CE)
• Durbi Takusheyi (14th century CE – 16th century CE)
• Agbaku Rockshelter (1403 CE)
• Bono Manso (1420 CE)
• Sidi Yahya Mosque (1440 CE)
• Ngazargamu (1488 CE)
• Bonduku (1586 CE)
• Agongointo-Zoungoudo Underground Town (16th century CE)
• Ksar El Barka (1690 CE)
• Jenini (1870 CE – 1895 CE)

See also

• List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history#West Africa