St. Johns River facts for kids
Quick facts for kids St. Johns River |
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St. Johns River near Astor
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St. Johns River surrounding with corresponding watersheds designated by the St. Johns River Water Management District: 1. Upper basin, 2. Middle basin, 3. Lake George basin, 4. Lower basin, 5. Ocklawaha River basin
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| Country | United States |
| State | Florida |
| Cities | Sanford, DeBary, Deltona, DeLand, Palatka, Green Cove Springs, Orange Park, Jacksonville |
| Physical characteristics | |
| Main source | St. Johns Marsh near Vero Beach, Indian River County, Florida 30 ft (9.1 m) 27°57′18″N 80°47′3″W / 27.95500°N 80.78417°W |
| River mouth | Atlantic Ocean Jacksonville, Duval County, Florida 0 ft (0 m) 30°24′05″N 81°24′3″W / 30.40139°N 81.40083°W |
| Length | 310 mi (500 km) |
| Basin features | |
| Basin size | 8,840 sq mi (22,900 km2) |
| Tributaries |
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The St. Johns River (Spanish: Río San Juan) is Florida's longest river. It is very important for both fun activities and business. It is about 310 miles (500 km) long. The river flows north and passes through or borders twelve counties.
The river drops less than 30 feet (9 meters) from its start to its end. Like most Florida waterways, the St. Johns flows very slowly, about 0.3 miles per hour (0.13 m/s). Because of this, it is often called "lazy."
Many lakes are formed by the river or flow into it. The widest part of the river is almost 3 miles (5 km) across. Its narrowest point is in the marshy area where it begins, in Indian River County. The St. Johns River's drainage basin covers 8,840 square miles (22,900 km²). This area includes many of Florida's important wetlands. The river is divided into three main parts, called basins. It also has two related areas for Lake George and the Ocklawaha River. The St. Johns River Water Management District manages all these areas.
Florida was home to the first lasting European settlement in the United States. But much of Florida stayed wild until the 1900s. As more people moved in, the St. Johns River changed. Like many Florida rivers, it was changed for farms and towns. This caused serious pollution and changed its flow, harming its ecosystem. In 1998, the St. Johns was named one of 14 American Heritage Rivers. In 2008, it was listed as the 6th most endangered river in America. People are now working to restore the river's basins as Florida's population keeps growing.
Many different groups of people have lived near the St. Johns River. These include Paleo-Indians, Archaic people, Timucua, Mocama, French, Spanish, and British colonists. Also, Seminoles, slaves and free people, Florida crackers, land developers, tourists, and retirees have called this area home. Famous writers like William Bartram, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings have written about it. In 2000, 3.5 million people lived in the areas that feed into the St. Johns River.
Contents
Exploring the St. Johns River
The St. Johns River starts in Brevard County and meets the Atlantic Ocean in Duval County. It is Florida's main waterway for business and fun. It flows north from its source, which is near the Lake Wales Ridge. This ridge is only about 30 feet (9 meters) above sea level. Because it is so flat, the river has a long backwater area. The river's water level changes with the ocean tides. It shares the same land features as the Kissimmee River, but the Kissimmee flows south.
The River's Upper Basin
The St. Johns River has three main basins and two other areas. The St. Johns River Water Management District manages them. Since the river flows north, the upper basin is at its southernmost point. The river begins in Indian River County as a network of marshes. This area is west of Vero Beach and is called the St. Johns Marsh.
The St. Johns River is a blackwater stream. This means it gets most of its water from swamps and marshes. Water soaks through the sandy soil and gathers in a slight valley. The upper basin is about 2,000 square miles (5,200 km²). The St. Johns becomes a river that boats can use in Brevard County. It touches the edges of Osceola and Orange Counties. It also flows through the southeast part of Seminole County. Then it moves into its middle basin, about 12 miles (19 km) north of Titusville.
In the 1920s, the Melbourne Tillman drainage project lowered the upper basin of the St. Johns. This project sent water from the St. Johns' source eastward to the Indian River. They dug canals across the Ten-Mile Ridge near Palm Bay. Today, some of these changes are being reversed to help the river.
The river is narrowest and hardest to predict in this basin. It is often hard to see the main channel. The best way to travel here is by airboat. There are about 3,500 lakes in the St. Johns watershed. All of them are shallow, usually 3 to 10 feet (0.9 to 3 meters) deep. The river flows into many of these lakes, which makes navigation tricky.
Eight larger lakes and five smaller ones are in the upper basin. One of the first is Lake Hell 'n Blazes. Its name comes from frustrated boatmen and fishermen in the 1800s. They struggled to get through floating islands of plants and muck. Lakes Washington, Winder, and Poinsett are further along the river. The northern part of the upper basin has the Tosohatchee Wildlife Management Area. This area was made in 1977 to help filter water flowing into the St. Johns.
Wetlands in the upper and middle basins get water from rain. This water is held by the surrounding land. The environment here has little oxygen and few nutrients. Plants often grow in peat, which is made from old, decaying plants. Water levels change with the wet and dry seasons. Plants in these basins must be able to handle both floods and droughts.
Trees like sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana), cypress (Taxodium), and swamp tupelo (Nyssa biflora) grow well on raised land called hammocks. Trees that live in water for a long time often have wide trunks or tangled roots. These help them get oxygen when underwater. Most plant life here is aquatic. Common wetland plants include the American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata), pitcher plants, and Virginia iris (Iris virginica). In the southernmost parts of the river, sawgrass (Cladium) grows in large wet areas. These wetland plants are great at filtering out pollution from the river.
The River's Middle Basin
For 37 miles (60 km), the river flows through a 1,200 square mile (3,100 km²) basin. This basin gets water mainly from springs and stormwater runoff. This area includes Orlando and its many tourist spots. Two million people live here. The middle basin has clear river banks in some places and wide, shallow lakes in others.
Two of the largest lakes in the middle basin are Lake Harney and Lake Monroe. The shallow Lake Harney is about 9 square miles (23 km²). It is fed by the narrow Puzzle Lake. Just north of it, the Econlockhatchee River joins the St. Johns. This makes the St. Johns wider and easier for larger boats to use. The river then turns west, touching Lake Jesup before flowing into Lake Monroe, near Sanford.
From this point, the St. Johns River is kept deep and wide for boats. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers maintains the channels. The U.S. Coast Guard keeps up the channel markers. Lake Monroe is a large lake, about 15 square miles (39 km²), with an average depth of 8 feet (2.4 meters). It drains a surrounding area of 2,420 square miles (6,270 km²). Sanford has built parts of its downtown area along the lake. People use boats to get around town.
After Lake Monroe, the St. Johns is usually 8 feet (2.4 meters) deep and about 100 yards (91 meters) wide. Here, it meets its most important tributary in the middle basin, the Wekiva River. This spring-fed river adds about 42 million US gallons (160 million L) of water to the St. Johns every day. Near this meeting point are the towns of DeBary and Deltona.
The forests around the Wekiva River are home to Florida's largest population of black bears (Ursus americanus floridanus). Several groups of Rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) also live near the river. It's not clear how the monkeys got to Florida. Some say they were brought for Tarzan movies filmed in the 1930s. Others say they were used for "jungle cruises" by a boat operator.
Invertebrate animals are very important in marshes. They are the base of the food web. Animals like apple snails (Pomacea paludosa), crayfish, and grass shrimp eat plants. This helps plants break down and provides food for fish and birds. Insect larvae use the water for breeding. They eat tiny copepods and amphipods that live in algae. Mosquitos are born in water. They are a favorite food for 112 types of dragonflies and 44 types of damselflies in Florida. These animals can handle changes in water levels, like dry spells or floods.
Many vertebrates live in the marsh waters. These include frogs, salamanders, snakes, turtles, and alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). Most of these animals are active at night. Frog calls can be very loud. During alligator mating season, the grunts of male alligators join in. The marshes around the St. Johns River's upper basin are full of birds. One study counted 60,000 birds in a single month. They were nesting or feeding in the upper basin. Wading birds like the white ibis (Eudocimus albus), wood stork (Mycteria americana), and purple gallinule (Porphyrio martinicus) rely on the water to raise their young. They eat small fish and tadpoles in shallow water during the dry season. In good years, their colonies can have thousands of birds. They make a lot of noise and help fertilize trees with their droppings.
- Birds found in the middle and upper St. Johns River basins
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American white ibis (Eudocimus albus)
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Barred owl (Strix varia)
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Wood stork (Mycteria americana)
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Limpkin (Aramus guarauna)
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American black vulture (Coragyps atratus)
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Yellow-crowned night heron (N. violacea)
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Red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus)
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Anhinga (Anhinga anhinga)
Lake George and its Wildlife
The river turns north again as it flows through a 46,000 acre (186 km²) basin. This basin spreads across Putnam, Lake, and Marion Counties, and western Volusia County. Just north of the Wekiva River is Blue Spring. This is the largest spring on the St. Johns. It produces over 64 million US gallons (240 million L) of water every day. Florida springs stay at a constant temperature of 72°F (22°C) all year.
Because of this, Blue Spring is where West Indian manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) spend the winter. They are protected within Blue Spring State Park. Manatees are large, slow-moving plant-eating mammals. Their biggest dangers are human development and fast-moving boats. Many parts of the St. Johns and its smaller rivers are "no-wake zones." This helps protect manatees from being hurt by boat propellers. People are not allowed to interact with manatees in Blue Spring State Park.
Next to Blue Spring State Park is Hontoon Island State Park. You can only reach this park by boat. In 1955, a very rare Timucua totem of an owl was found here. It was buried and preserved in the St. Johns muck near Hontoon Island. This figure might mean its creators were part of the owl clan. Two more totems, shaped like a pelican and an otter, were found in 1978. These were the only totems found outside the Pacific Northwest. They represent different Timucua clans.
River otters (Lutra canadensis) live along the St. Johns and its smaller rivers. They live in burrows or tree roots near the water. They eat crayfish, turtles, and small fish. Otters are usually active at night. They are playful but shy of people.
The St. Johns River flows into the southern part of Lake George. This is Florida's second largest lake, covering 72 square miles (186 km²). It is 6 miles (10 km) wide and 12 miles (19 km) long. The area around Lake George covers 3,590 square miles (9,300 km²). It is within Ocala National Forest and Lake George State Forest. These forests protect an ecosystem of pine and scrub.
Flatwoods forests are common in the Lake George area. They have slash pines (Pinus elliottii), saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), and over 100 types of ground plants. These plants grow in poor, sandy soil. Flatwoods pine forests usually stay dry. But they can handle short floods. Larger land animals like wild turkeys (Meleagallopavo) and sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis) live here. This area also has the largest population of southern bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus) in the U.S. Common mammals include raccoons (Procyon lotor), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), bobcats (Lynx rufus), and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). These animals prefer dry, flat areas with good cover and places to nest.
The Ocklawaha River: A Major Tributary
The Ocklawaha River flows north and joins the St. Johns. It is the largest tributary and has a rich history. The Ocklawaha drainage basin covers 2,769 square miles (7,170 km²). It includes Ocala, Gainesville, and northern parts of the Orlando area. The Ocklawaha has two starting points. One is a chain of lakes, with Lake Apopka being the largest. The other is the Green Swamp near Haines City. The Palatlakaha River drains this swamp.
The Silver River is about halfway along the 96-mile (154 km) Ocklawaha. It is fed by one of Florida's most productive springs. This spring releases 54 million US gallons (200 million L) of water daily.
The Ocklawaha River region was once a major fishing spot. But water quality declined in the 1940s. Since then, the river and its sources have gotten worse. Lake Apopka became Florida's most polluted lake after a chemical spill in 1980. It has also had ongoing algal blooms. These are caused by fertilizer from citrus farms and wastewater runoff.
The St. Johns River is home to 183 types of fish. Fifty-five of these live in the main part of the river. One fish, the southern tessellated darter (Etheostoma olmstedi), is only found in the Ocklawaha. Some fish are marine species. They either swim upriver to lay eggs or live in salty spring-fed areas. For example, Atlantic stingrays (Dasyatis sabina) live in Lake Washington in the upper basin. Ocean worms, snails, and white-fingered mud crabs (Rhithropanopeus harrisii) have also been found far upriver.
In contrast, American eels (Anguilla rostrata) live in the St. Johns and Ocklawaha. They travel to the Sargasso Sea in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean to lay eggs. After a year in the ocean, many find their way back to the St. Johns to live. Then, guided by the moon, they return to the Sargasso Sea to lay eggs and die. This is part of their amazing life cycle.
The River's Lower Basin
From where the Ocklawaha River joins, the St. Johns flows 101 miles (163 km) to the Atlantic Ocean. This is the lower basin. It drains 2,600 square miles (6,700 km²) in Putnam, St. Johns, Clay, and Duval Counties. Twelve smaller rivers flow into the St. Johns in this basin. The St. Johns River gets much wider north of Lake George. Between Lake George and Palatka, it is 600 to 2,640 feet (180 to 800 meters) wide. Between Palatka and Jacksonville, it widens even more, to 1 to 3 miles (1.6 to 4.8 km) across. This part of the river is best for boats, and shipping is its main use.
The towns and cities along the lower basin are some of Florida's oldest. Their history is tied to the river. Palatka and Green Cove Springs were once popular tourist spots. Many smaller towns grew around ferry landings. But when railroads and then interstate highways were built closer to the coast, these towns declined. The ferry landings were forgotten.
The last 35 miles (56 km) of the river run through Jacksonville. This city has over a million people. Much of Jacksonville's economy depends on the river. About 18 million short tons (16 million metric tons) of goods are shipped in and out of Jacksonville each year. Exports include paper, phosphate, fertilizers, and citrus. Major imports include oil, coffee, limestone, cars, and lumber. The Port of Jacksonville brings in $1.38 billion to the local economy. It also supports 10,000 jobs. The U.S. Navy has two bases in Jacksonville. Naval Station Mayport, at the river's mouth, is the second largest Atlantic Fleet operation. Naval Air Station Jacksonville is one of the Navy's largest air bases.
If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River —Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings in Cross Creek
Jacksonville is often called "The River City." Its culture is centered on the St. Johns. An annual footrace, the Gate River Run, has 18,000 participants. They run a course along and over the river twice. The largest kingfishing tournament in the U.S. is held on a St. Johns tributary. Fishermen focus on king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla), cobia (Rachycentron canadum), dolphin (Coryphaena hippurus), and Wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri). The home stadium for the Jacksonville Jaguars faces the river. So does most of downtown's business center. Seven bridges cross the St. Johns in Jacksonville. All allow tall ships to pass, though some limit times during heavy traffic.
Tides cause seawater to enter the St. Johns River's mouth. This can affect the river's level far south into the middle basin. Because of this, much of the river in Jacksonville is part seawater. This makes it an estuarine ecosystem. Animals and plants in these systems can live in both fresh and salt water. They can also handle changes in salt content and temperature from tides and heavy rain. Marine animals like dolphins and sharks can sometimes be seen in the St. Johns in Jacksonville. Manatees also appear. Fish like mullet (Mullidae), flounder (Paralichthys lethostigma), shad (Alosa sapidissima), and blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus) travel from the ocean to freshwater springs upriver to lay eggs.
In the middle and lower basins, freshwater invertebrates like algae and periphyton form the base of food webs. But in the estuary, zooplankton and phytoplankton play that role. Mollusks gather in large numbers at the St. Johns estuary. They feed on the river and ocean floors. The many middens (shell mounds) left by the Timucua show how important oysters (Crassostrea virginica) were. Oysters and other mollusks are the main food source for shorebirds. The large trees that line the river from its source to south of Jacksonville change into salt marshes east of the city. Mayport is home to about 20 shrimping boats. They use the St. Johns' mouth to reach the Atlantic Ocean.
How the River Formed
River's Geologic Past
The St. Johns River flows through a coastal plain. This area was once barrier islands, coastal dunes, and estuary marshes. The Florida Peninsula was mostly formed by ocean forces and minerals. It is so low that small changes in sea levels can greatly affect its shape. Florida was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana.
Underneath the visible rocks is a basement of igneous granite and volcanic rock. This is covered by a sedimentary layer from the Paleozoic era (542 to 251 million years ago). During the Cretaceous period (145 to 66 million years ago), more layers of calcium carbonate and evaporites (from evaporated water) covered it. What we see today is from sand, shells, and coral building up, and water and weather wearing things away. The ocean has covered Florida at least seven times. Waves pressed sand, calcium carbonate, and shells into limestone. Beach ridges formed at the ocean's edge. North-south rivers, like the St. Johns, formed in low areas between these old beach ridges. As the ocean pulled back, lagoons formed in these low areas. Acidic water then wore them down more. Barrier islands also formed along the Atlantic Coast. They surrounded the lagoons with land, creating a freshwater river.
From its start to near Sanford, the St. Johns flows north. Near Sanford, it makes a sharp turn west for a few miles. This is called the St. Johns River offset. But it soon turns north again. Scientists think the west-flowing part might have formed earlier. This could have happened during the late Tertiary or early Pleistocene era (66 to 12 million years ago). Some cracks and faults in the earth might also be why it turns. Florida doesn't have many earthquakes, but some small ones have happened near the St. Johns River. These are caused by the deep crack left from when Pangaea split apart.
Springs and Aquifers
All of Florida's fresh water comes from rain. This rain then returns to the air through evapotranspiration. This process includes water evaporating and plants releasing moisture. When it rains, most water goes into lakes, streams, and rivers. But a lot of fresh water is stored underground in aquifers. A surficial aquifer is close to the surface. It is made mostly of clay, shells, and sand. Below it is a layer of denser materials. Wells are drilled into the surficial aquifer. This provides good quality water where the deeper aquifer has many minerals. Sometimes, the dense layer has cracks. This allows water to seep down and refill the layer below. The Floridan Aquifer is under the dense layer. It covers all of Florida and parts of Georgia, Alabama, and South Carolina. It is easy to reach in northern Florida. It provides fresh water for cities from St. Petersburg north to Jacksonville and Tallahassee.
Acidic rainwater wears away the limestone. This can form underground caves. If the ground above these caves is thin (less than 100 feet or 30 meters), sinkholes can form. When limestone or the sand/clay layer dissolves over an aquifer, and water pressure pushes out, springs form. The upper and middle basins of the St. Johns River are in an area where the aquifer system is thinly covered. This means there are many springs and sinkholes. Springs are measured by how much water they release. This depends on the season and rainfall.
The largest springs are "first magnitude" springs. They release at least 100 cubic feet (2.8 m³) of water per second. Four first magnitude springs feed the St. Johns River:
- Silver Springs in Marion County: 250 to 1,290 cubic feet (7.1 to 36.5 m³) per second.
- Silver Glen Spring in Marion and Lake Counties: 38 to 245 cubic feet (1.1 to 6.9 m³) per second.
- Alexander Springs in Lake County: 56 to 202 cubic feet (1.6 to 5.7 m³) per second.
- Blue Spring in Volusia County: 87 to 218 cubic feet (2.5 to 6.2 m³) per second.
Rainfall and Climate
The St. Johns River is in a humid subtropical zone. In summer, temperatures range from 74°F to 92°F (23°C to 33°C). In winter, they are between 50°F and 72°F (10°C and 22°C). But temperatures can drop below freezing about a dozen times in winter. Water temperatures in the river match the air temperatures. The average water temperature is between 50°F and 95°F (10°C and 35°C), rising in summer. Where the river widens between Palatka and Jacksonville, wind becomes important for boats. Both whitecap waves and calm water are common.
Rain falls more often in late summer and early fall. Tropical storms and nor'easters are common along Florida's Atlantic coast. The St. Johns River is 10 to 30 miles (16 to 48 km) inland. So, any storm hitting counties from Indian River north to Duval brings rain that drains into the St. Johns. Tropical Storm Fay in 2008 dropped 16 inches (410 mm) of rain in 5 days, mostly near Melbourne. The St. Johns near Geneva in Seminole County rose 7 feet (2.1 meters) in four days, a new record. The river near Sanford rose 3 feet (0.9 meters) in 36 hours. Fay caused bad flooding in the middle basin. This was due to the heavy rain and the river's flat slopes.
Typically, the St. Johns basin gets 50 to 54 inches (1,300 to 1,400 mm) of rain each year. Half of this falls in the summer months. The rate of evapotranspiration (water returning to the air) is 27 to 57 inches (690 to 1,400 mm) a year. Most of this happens in the summer.
River Flow and Water Quality
The entire river is on the nearly flat Pamlico terrace. This means it drops only about 0.8 inches (2 cm) per mile (km). It is one of the flattest major rivers on the continent. In the lower basin, its closeness to the ocean affects its rise and fall with tides and its saltiness. Tides regularly change water levels as far south as Lake George. With strong winds, the river's tidal effects can reach Lake Monroe, 161 miles (259 km) away. They have even reached Lake Harney sometimes.
Tides usually raise the river level about 1.2 feet (0.37 meters) at Jacksonville. This decreases to about 0.7 feet (0.21 meters) at Orange Park where the river widens. It then increases back to 1.2 feet (0.37 meters) at Palatka as it narrows. Because of tides, water flow measurements in the lower basin are often not exact. However, the estimated flow rate between the Ocklawaha River and central Jacksonville is 4,000 to 8,300 cubic feet (110 to 230 m³) per second. The flow without tides at the mouth at Mayport averages 15,000 cubic feet (420 m³) per second. But with tides, it goes over 50,000 cubic feet (1,400 m³) per second. After heavy rains and with tides, it can reach over 150,000 cubic feet (4,200 m³) per second.
Farther upriver, the flow rate is 1,030 cubic feet (29 m³) per second near Lake Poinsett. It is 2,850 cubic feet (81 m³) per second near DeLand. Many springs, the Econlockhatchee River, and the Wekiva River join the St. Johns. This causes the average flow to increase by 940 cubic feet (27 m³) per second between Lake Harney and DeLand. This is the biggest yearly average increase in flow along the St. Johns.
The salinity (saltiness) in the river slowly decreases as you go farther from the ocean. Ocean water is 35 parts per thousand (ppt) or more. Fresh water is below 2 ppt. Water in between is called brackish water. Near central Jacksonville, the average saltiness has been 11.40 ppt. Farther south at the Buckman Bridge, it drops to 2.9 ppt. It falls again to 0.81 ppt at the Shands Bridge near Green Cove Springs.
Dissolved oxygen in fresh water shows how healthy plant and animal life are. Oxygen enters water from the air and from aquatic plants making food. Water pressure and temperature affect it. If a lot of dead plants and animals break down quickly, the dissolved oxygen in the river will go down. Nutrients from wastewater treatment runoff or farm fertilizers also lower oxygen. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and Florida recommend at least 5 mg of oxygen per liter. Several places on the St. Johns or its tributaries had levels at or below this in the 1990s and early 2000s. These included the Wekiva River mouth, the St. Johns at Christmas, Blue Spring, and Blackwater Creek. Low oxygen levels can cause algae blooms, which can lower oxygen even more.
Like all blackwater streams in Florida, most of the St. Johns is black. This is because of the tannin from decaying leaves and plants. Spring-fed streams, however, are very clear. You can see far down, even if the bottom is many feet below.
Human History Along the St. Johns
Early People of Florida
Humans first arrived in Florida about 12,000 years ago. At that time, the ocean was about 350 feet (107 meters) lower than today. Florida was twice its current size. These first people are called Paleo-Indians. They were hunters and gatherers. They followed large animals like mastodons, horses, camels, and bison. Much of the land was far from water. Most fresh water was frozen in glaciers. So, Florida was a dry land with few trees, mostly grasslands and scrub.
Around 9,000 years ago, the climate got warmer. This melted much of the ice, making the environment wetter. Half of Florida's land became covered by water. Paleo-Indians didn't have to travel as far for water, so their camps became more permanent villages. Archeologists found many different tools from this time. This shows the change to Archaic people. Archaic people made tools from bone, animal teeth, and antlers. They wove fibers from plants like cabbage palms.
Some burial sites have been found, like the Windover Archaeological Site near Titusville. These show how they buried their dead. Archaic people buried their dead in shallow peat marshes. This preserved much of the human tissue. More climate change happened between 5,000 and 3,000 years ago. This led to the Middle Archaic period. Evidence suggests people first lived near the St. Johns River during this time. The number of native people grew a lot. Many settlements from this time have been found near the St. Johns. The river banks are covered with middens (shell mounds). These are filled with thousands of shells, mostly from freshwater snails and oysters.
Around 500 BCE, new types of pottery and stone tools appeared. The Archaic people settled into groups around Florida. From central Florida north, along the Atlantic Coast, lived people of the St. Johns culture. This culture was named after the important natural feature nearby. Around 750 CE, the St. Johns culture learned to grow corn. This added to their diet of fish, game, and gourds. Archeologists believe this farming led to more people.
When European explorers came to north Florida, they met the Timucua. There were about 14,000 Timucua people. They were the largest native group in the area. Later, the Seminole people called the river Welaka or Ylacco. These names might come from the Creek word wi-láko, meaning "big water." This word is often used for large rivers that flow through lakes, which the St. Johns does. Another idea is that the Seminole name comes from walaka (from wi-alaka, "water" and "coming"). This might refer to the river's slow flow and how tides affect it. The name is sometimes translated as "Chain of Lakes."
European Settlement and Conflict
The first Europeans in Florida arrived in 1513 with Juan Ponce de León. But Europeans didn't settle the north Atlantic coast until 1562. Early Spanish explorers called the river Rio de Corientes (River of Currents). The St. Johns River became the first place colonized in the region and its first battleground. French explorer Jean Ribault put up a monument south of the river's mouth to show French presence. This worried the Spanish, who had been exploring the southern and western coast for decades. Ribault was held after he went back to Europe.
In 1564, René Goulaine de Laudonnière came to build Fort Caroline at the St. Johns River's mouth. They called the river Rivière de Mai because they settled on May 1. An artist named Jacques LeMoyne drew what he saw among the Timucuan people in 1564. He showed them as strong and having plenty of food. Fort Caroline did not last long, even though relations with the local Timucua and Mocamas were friendly. The colony could not support itself, and some French people left. Those who stayed were killed in 1565 by the Spanish, led by Pedro Menéndez. The Spanish marched north from St. Augustine and captured Fort Caroline. The river was renamed San Mateo by the Spanish. This was in honor of the Apostle Matthew, whose feast day was the next day. Taking Fort Caroline allowed the Spanish to control the river.
The French and Spanish kept fighting over who would control the land and native peoples. The Timucua had first been friends with the French. But they were not encouraged to be Spanish allies. This was because the Spanish governor, Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, disliked French Protestantism. He also thought Timucuan beliefs were "Satanic." By 1573, the Timucua were openly fighting back. This made the governor impatient. Spanish settlers had to leave farms and forts in Florida's interior. The Spanish could not stop the Timucua from attacking them.
Over a hundred years later, missionaries had more success. They set up posts along the river. Spanish Franciscan missionaries gave the river its current name. It came from San Juan del Puerto (St. John of the Harbor). This was the mission built at the river's mouth after the French fort fell. The name first appeared on a Spanish map made between 1680 and 1700.
The Timucua, like other native groups in Florida, began to lose their strength and numbers by the 1700s. A tribe from modern-day Georgia and Alabama, called the Creeks, helped with this. In 1702, they joined with the Yamasee and attacked some Timucua. This forced the Timucua to seek protection from the Spanish, who then forced them into slavery. The Creeks began to take in other people and spread farther south. By 1765, the British called them Seminoles. This term came from cimarrones, meaning "runaways" or "wild ones." The Seminoles used different languages from the people the Creeks had taken in. These included Hitchiti, Muskogee, and Timucua. Between 1716 and 1767, the Seminoles slowly moved into Florida. They began to break ties with the Creeks and become their own tribe. The St. Johns River was a natural border. It separated European colonies on the east bank from native lands west of the river.
After Florida became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1763, Quaker naturalists John and William Bartram explored the river. They visited the southeastern United States from 1765 to 1766. They published journals about their experiences and the plants and animals they saw. King George III asked them to find the source of the river they called the Picolata or San Juan. They measured its width and depth and took soil samples.
William returned to Florida from 1773 to 1777. He wrote another journal about his travels. He collected plants and became friends with the Seminoles, who called him "Puc Puggy" (flower hunter). William traveled as far south as Blue Spring. He wrote about the clear spring water: "The water is perfectly clear, and here are continually a huge number and variety of fish; they appear as plain as though lying on a table before your eyes, although many feet deep in the water." Bartram's journals caught the attention of important Americans like James Madison and Alexander Hamilton. The success of these journals inspired other naturalists. André Michaux explored the St. Johns in 1788. He sailed from Palatka south to Lake Monroe. He named some of the plants the Bartrams had described. William Baldwin followed him between 1811 and 1817. Later explorers, including John James Audubon, used William's Travels Through North & South Carolina, Georgia, East & West Florida as a guide.
In 1795, Florida was given back to Spain. Spain attracted Americans with cheap land. Zephaniah Kingsley, a planter and slave trader, bought land near what is now Doctors Lake. This was close to the St. Johns River, south of Orange Park. Three years later, Kingsley bought a 13-year-old girl named Anna Madgigine Jai. She became his common-law wife. She managed his plantation, Laurel Grove, while Kingsley traveled. The plantation grew citrus and sea island cotton. In 1814, they moved to a larger plantation on Fort George Island. They lived there for 25 years. They also owned other plantations and homes in what is now Jacksonville and on Drayton Island. Kingsley later married three other freed women. Spanish-controlled Florida allowed marriages between different races. White landowners like James Erwin, George Clarke, and others along the river were married to or had relationships with African women.
Florida Becomes a State
Florida became part of the United States in 1821. The first years were marked by violent fights between white settlers and Seminoles. Seminole groups often included runaway African slaves. The battles between American and Seminole forces are reflected in the names of towns and places along the St. Johns. These places are named after people involved in the conflicts.
Before Florida was under U.S. control, Major General Andrew Jackson moved the Alachua Seminoles west of the Suwannee River in 1818. He either killed them or forced them farther south. Jackson's actions started the First Seminole War. As a reward, a wide crossing of the St. Johns near the Georgia border, once called Cowford, was renamed Jacksonville. After the Seminole Wars, trade and population slowly grew on the St. Johns. This was made possible by steamship travel.
Steamboats brought a golden age for the river. Before railroads, they were the only way to reach inland parts of Florida. They also gave Jacksonville citizens a fun pastime: watching boat races. By the 1860s, weekly trips between Jacksonville, Charleston, and Savannah carried tourists, lumber, cotton, and citrus. The soil along the St. Johns was known for growing very sweet oranges.
Florida's role in the U.S. Civil War was small. This was because it had fewer people than other Confederate states. Florida sent supplies to the Confederacy using steamboats on the St. Johns. But the river and Atlantic coasts were blocked by the U.S. Navy. One event in Florida's Civil War history was the sinking of the USS Columbine. This was a Union paddle steamer used to patrol the St. Johns. Its job was to stop supplies from reaching the Confederate Army. In 1864, near Palatka, Confederate forces captured, burned, and sank the USS Columbine. This might make her the only ship taken by the Confederacy. The same year, Confederates sank another Union boat, the Maple Leaf. It hit a floating barrel of explosives and sank near Julington Creek, south of Jacksonville. Part of the shipwreck was found in 1994. Many Civil War items, like old photos and wooden matches, were preserved in the river muck.
Even though Spain had colonized Florida for two centuries, it was the last part of the U.S. east coast to be developed. After the Civil War, Florida was too much in debt to build roads and rail lines. In 1881, Florida Governor William Bloxham asked Hamilton Disston, a businessman from Pennsylvania, for help. Disston was first asked to build canals to improve steamboat travel on the Caloosahatchee River. Later, he was asked to drain land in central Florida for farming. Disston was convinced to buy 4 million acres (16,000 km²) of land in central Florida for $1 million. At the time, this was said to be the largest land purchase in history. Disston was not successful in his drainage efforts. But his investment started the tourist industry. It also made it possible for railroad builders Henry Flagler and Henry Plant to build rail lines down Florida's east coast. This included a rail link between Sanford and Tampa. Disston helped create the towns of Kissimmee, St. Cloud, and others on Florida's west coast.
A New York Times story in 1883 said that before Disston's purchase, the only places worth seeing in Florida were Jacksonville and St. Augustine. Maybe an overnight trip on the St. Johns River to Palatka was also worth it. By 1883, tourist attractions had spread 250 miles (400 km) south. More attention was given to the St. Johns as the population grew. Florida was shown as an exciting place that could cure illnesses with its water and citrus. The region began to be featured in travel writings.
To help his bronchitis, Ralph Waldo Emerson stayed briefly in St. Augustine. He called north Florida "a strange region" that was being taken over by land buyers. Emerson disliked the public sale of slaves, which added to his dislike of the area. However, after the Civil War, famous author Harriet Beecher Stowe lived near Jacksonville. She traveled up the St. Johns and wrote about it with love: "The entrance of the St. Johns from the ocean is one of the most unique and impressive passages of scenery that we ever passed through: in fine weather the sight is magnificent." Her book Palmetto Leaves, published in 1873, was a series of her letters home. It greatly influenced people from the north to move to Florida.
One unexpected problem came with more people moving to Florida. Water hyacinths, possibly brought in 1884 by Mrs. W. W. Fuller near Palatka, grew very thick. They became a serious invasive species. By the mid-1890s, these purple-flowered plants covered 50 million acres (200,000 km²) of the river and its smaller waterways. The plants made it impossible for boats to pass. They also blocked fishing and sunlight from reaching the river's depths, harming both plants and animals. The Florida government found the plants so annoying that it spent almost $600,000 between 1890 and 1930. They tried to get rid of them from north Florida's creeks and rivers, but they were not successful.
Modern Challenges and Restoration Efforts
Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings used the St. Johns as a setting in her books South Moon Under and The Yearling, and in several short stories. In 1933, she took a boat trip along the St. Johns with a friend. In the upper basin, she noted how hard it was to tell the river's direction because of its unclear flow. In her memoir Cross Creek, she wrote that she had the best luck watching how the hyacinths floated. Rawlings wrote, "If I could have, to hold forever, one brief place and time of beauty, I think I might choose the night on that high lonely bank above the St. Johns River."
In the 20th century, Florida saw a huge number of people move into the state. Undeveloped land sold well, and draining wetlands often went unchecked. This was often encouraged by the government. The St. Johns headwaters shrank from 30 square miles (78 km²) to just one between 1900 and 1972. Much of the land was used for cities, but farming also took its toll. Fertilizers and runoff from cattle farms washed into the St. Johns. Without wetlands to filter the pollution, the chemicals stayed in the river and flowed into the Atlantic Ocean. Boaters destroyed the floating islands of muck and weeds in the upper basin with dynamite. This caused the lakes to drain completely.
The Cross Florida Barge Canal could have been the most serious human impact on nature in central Florida. This project, started in 1933, aimed to connect Florida's Gulf and Atlantic coasts by channeling the Ocklawaha River. The canal was planned to be 171 miles (275 km) long, 250 feet (76 meters) wide, and 30 feet (9.1 meters) deep. Building this canal was a top engineering priority in Florida. By 1964, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers began construction. Flood control was the main reason for building it. However, the overall reasons and whether the project was possible remained unclear. The Army Corps of Engineers was also building hundreds of miles of canals in the Everglades at the same time. By the 1960s, they were accused of wasting tax money on unnecessary projects. In 1969, the Environmental Defense Fund sued to stop the canal. They argued it would cause lasting harm to Florida's waterways and the Floridan Aquifer, which is central and north Florida's fresh water source.
A separate canal, the St. Johns-Indian River Barge Canal, was planned to link the river with the Intracoastal Waterway. This project never started and was canceled soon after the Cross Florida Barge Canal was stopped.
When railroads replaced steamboats, the river became less important to the state. Many new people moved to Florida, mostly south of Orlando. This negatively affected the natural wetlands there. In the last 50 years, cities in northern and central Florida have grown a lot. In the upper basin, the population grew by 700 percent between 1950 and 2000. It is expected to grow by another 1.5 million by 2020.
Nitrates and phosphorus from lawn and crop fertilizers wash into the St. Johns. Broken septic systems and runoff from cattle farms also pollute the river. Stormwater flows directly from street drains into the river and its tributaries. In the 1970s, the Econlockhatchee River received 8 million US gallons (30 million L) of treated wastewater every day. Wetlands were drained and paved over. This meant they could no longer filter pollutants from the water. The river's slow flow made this problem worse. Algae blooms, fish kills, and fish with deformities or sores happen regularly in the river from Palatka to Jacksonville. Most of the pollution comes from the southern parts of the river. But the Jacksonville area produces about 36 percent of the pollution found in the lower basin.
In 1987, Florida started a program called Surface Water Improvement and Management (SWIM). This program helps clean up rivers, especially from nonpoint source pollution. This is pollution that soaks into the ground, not from direct pipes. SWIM helps local areas buy land to restore wetlands. The St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) is in charge of restoring the river. The first step, especially in the upper basin, is to buy public lands along the river. Ten different reserves and conservation areas have been set up around the St. Johns headwaters for this purpose. Around Lake Griffin, the SJRWMD has bought 6,500 acres (26 km²) of land that was once used for farming. More than 19,000 acres (77 km²) have been bought along Lake Apopka to restore its wetlands. The SJRWMD has also removed almost 15 million pounds (6.8 million kg) of gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum). This fish stores phosphorus and adds to algae problems. The SJRWMD has also set minimum water levels for the lakes and tributaries in the St. Johns watersheds. This helps them monitor water use and declare water shortages when needed.
To help clean the river and get funds for water quality, Jacksonville Mayor John Delaney started a campaign. He wanted the St. Johns to be named an American Heritage River. This began in 1997. This title from the Environmental Protection Agency helps federal groups work together. They aim to improve natural resources, protect the environment, boost the economy, and preserve history and culture. The campaign was debated. The Republican mayor defended asking for federal help. He wrote, "Other rivers have relied heavily on federal help for massive environmental clean-ups. It's the St. Johns' turn now." Twenty-two towns along the St. Johns and many environmental, sports, and educational groups supported the idea. But some Republican politicians worried about more federal rules and limits on private property along the river. The Florida House of Representatives even passed a resolution asking President Bill Clinton not to include the St. Johns. Despite this, Clinton named the St. Johns one of only 14 American Heritage Rivers in 1998. It was chosen from 126 nominations for its importance to nature, history, economy, and culture.
Florida's population keeps growing. City planners predict that the Floridan Aquifer will not be able to provide enough water for north Florida. By 2020, 7 million people are expected to live in the St. Johns basins. This is double the number from 2008. Plans to use 155 million US gallons (590 million L) of water a day from the St. Johns, and another 100 million US gallons (380 million L) from the Ocklawaha River, are controversial. This led a group called St. Johns Riverkeeper to nominate the river to the list of the Ten Most Endangered Rivers. This list is made by an environmental watchdog group called American Rivers. In 2008, it was listed as #6. Jacksonville's newspaper, The Florida Times-Union, approved. But the SJRWMD was doubtful.
The St. Johns River is being considered as an extra water source for growing public needs. In 2008, the river's Water Management District studied the effects of taking water. They asked the National Research Council to review the science as the study went on. This led to four reports. They looked at how taking water would affect river levels and flow. They also reviewed possible effects on wetland ecosystems. And they gave overall thoughts on the Water Management District's study. The National Research Council found that the District did a good job. They showed the predicted environmental changes and how uncertain they were. However, the report noted that the District's final report should include important issues. These include future sea-level rises, population growth, and city development. The District predicted that changes in water management would increase water levels and flows. These increases would be more than the proposed water withdrawals. But these predictions have high uncertainties.
The report also worried about the District's idea that taking water would have few bad effects on nature. This idea was based on models that showed increased flows from upper basin projects. It also showed increases from land use changes (more paved areas). These largely made up for the effects of taking water. While upper basin projects are good because they return land and water to the river, increased city runoff is not. The poor quality of this runoff is well known.
See also
In Spanish: Río St. Johns (Florida) para niños
