Greater India facts for kids

This page is about the Indian cultural sphere. For the irredentist concept, see Akhand Bharat.

Quick facts for kids
Indian Cultural Sphere
Greater India or
Indian cultural extent Dark orange: The Indian subcontinent Light orange: Southeast Asia culturally linked to India (except Northern Vietnam, Philippines and Western New Guinea) Yellow: Regions with significant Indian cultural influence, notably the Philippines, Tibet, and historically Afghanistan and Pakistan
Southeast Asia
Indianized Kingdoms	Angkor, Borobodur, Butuan, Cebu, Champa, Chenla, Dvaravati, Funan, Gangga Negara, Kalingga, Kutai, Langkasuka, Majapahit, Pagan, Pan Pan, Singhasari, Srivijaya, Tarumanagara, Tondo
Theravada Buddhism	Buddhism in Southeast Asia (Theravada is popular mainly in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand)
Hinduism	Hinduism in Southeast Asia
South Asia
Theravada Buddhism	India, Sri Lanka
Vajrayana Buddhism	Bhutan, Nepal, Tibet
Hinduism	Bhutan, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka
Central Asia
Buddhist monasticism	Buddhism in Central Asia, Kushan Empire
Indosphere · Hindu texts · Buddhist texts · Folklore of India · Ramayana (Versions of Ramayana)
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Greater India, also known as the Indian cultural sphere, is a term for countries and regions in South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia. These areas were historically shaped by Indian culture. This influence came from the many different local cultures within South Asia itself.

It's like a big umbrella term for the Indian subcontinent and nearby countries. These places are connected by a mix of cultures. They have changed in different ways by accepting and sharing cultural ideas and ways of doing things. The term "Greater India" became popular in the 1920s among scholars from Bengal. However, it was used less often after the 1970s.

Around 500 BCE, trade by land and sea in the Indian Ocean grew a lot. This led to a long period of sharing ideas and cultures. Buddhist and Hindu beliefs spread into the ways people thought about the world. This was especially true in Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Central Asia, the main ideas that spread were religious.

By the early centuries of the Common Era, most Southeast Asian kingdoms had adopted key parts of Indian culture. This included religion and how they governed. The idea of divine god-kings was introduced. This came from the concept of Harihara, a god who was both Vishnu and Shiva. Sanskrit and other Indian writing systems became official. Examples include those from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya dynasty. These "Indianized" kingdoms were strong and stable. The term "Indianized" was created by George Cœdès.

To the north, Indian religious ideas mixed with the beliefs of people in the Himalayas. This was very true in Tibet and Bhutan. These ideas combined with local traditions. Buddhist monasticism (monkhood) spread into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and other parts of Central Asia. Buddhist texts and ideas were also accepted in China and Japan. To the west, Indian culture met with Greater Persia across the Hindu Kush and Pamir Mountains.

Understanding the Idea of Greater India
- How the Concept Developed
Indian Cultural Influence in Asia
- How Culture Spread
- Shared Cultural Elements
Language and Literature Influence
Indianization of Southeast Asia
Indianized Kingdoms of Southeast Asia
- Mainland Kingdoms
- Island Kingdoms
Indianized Kingdoms of Southwest Asia
Genetic Influence
Images for kids
See also

Understanding the Idea of Greater India

How the Concept Developed

The idea of "Greater India" has changed over time. It has been used to describe different areas.

Geographical Meanings of "India"

In old Europe, people often talked about the "Three Indias."

Greater India was the southern part of South Asia.
Lesser India was the northern part of South Asia.
Middle India was the area near the Middle East.

The Portuguese used the term India Maior (Greater India) from the mid-1400s. This term was used differently by various people. Sometimes it meant only the Indian subcontinent. Europeans used many terms for the South Asian peninsula. These included High India, Greater India, Exterior India, and India aquosa.

In some old sea travel stories, Greater India (or India Major) stretched from the Malabar Coast (today's Kerala) to India extra Gangem. This meant "India, beyond the Ganges." It usually referred to the East Indies, which is today's Malay Archipelago. India Minor was from Malabar to Sind. Farther India sometimes covered all of modern Southeast Asia.

By the late 1800s, Greater India in geography included:

German maps called the South Asian peninsula Vorder-Indien (Anterior India). They called Southeast Asia Hinter-Indien (Posterior India).

"Greater India" in Geology

The term Greater India or Greater India Basin also refers to a geological idea. It means the Indian Plate plus a possible northern extension. This is the result of the Indian–Asia collision. This term was used in geology before the Plate tectonic theory. However, its use increased after the 1970s. Scientists are still studying when the Indian and Eurasian Plates collided.

"Greater India" as a Cultural Area

Candi Bukit Batu Pahat in Bujang Valley. This Hindu-Buddhist kingdom ruled ancient Kedah possibly as early as 110 CE. It shows early strong Indian influence among the Kedahan Malays.

The idea of Greater India as an Indian cultural area became popular in the 1920s. This was thanks to a group of scholars in Calcutta. They were all part of the Greater India Society. These scholars believed that ancient India had a positive cultural influence on Southeast Asia. They saw this as very different from Western colonialism in the early 20th century.

Some people define Greater India as "lands including Burma, Java, Cambodia, Bali, and the former Champa and Funan areas of present-day Vietnam." In these places, Indian and Hindu culture left its mark. This can be seen in monuments, writings, and other signs of the historical "Indianizing" process. Others say that many Pacific societies and "most of the Buddhist world" were part of this cultural spread. This included Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Tibet, Central Asia, and even Japan. This specific use, meaning India's cultural "sphere of influence," was promoted by the Greater India Society. This term was used in historical writings in India until the 1970s.

What "Indianization" Means

The terms "Indianized kingdoms" and "Indianization" were created by George Coedès. They describe Southeast Asian kingdoms that grew from the early Common Era. This happened because of centuries of social and economic interactions. These kingdoms adopted key parts of Indian ways of life. This included institutions, religion, government, administration, culture, writing, literature, and architecture.

Political Ideas of "Greater India"

The term Greater India and the idea of ancient Hindu expansion in Southeast Asia have been linked to Indian nationalism and Hindu nationalism. The English term became popular in the late 1800s and 1900s. It suggested an expanding India within East Asia. However, many Indian nationalists, like Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore, avoided using "Greater India" directly. They preferred to see India as a kind and peaceful civilizer.

Today, "Greater India" often refers to India's "soft power." This means its cultural influence. India sees this region as part of its extended neighborhood. Modern connections have grown through economic and strategic ties. This was boosted by the "Look East" policy. More recently, it has also involved stronger military ties.

Sri Lanka also has strong political links with Southeast Asia. ASEAN asked Sri Lanka to be a founding member. Sri Lanka has been increasing its connections with Southeast Asia through its own "Look East" policy. Politicians there see the relationship between Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia as very important, second only to South Asia.

Indian Cultural Influence in Asia

How Culture Spread

Atashgah of Baku, a fire temple in Azerbaijan used by both Hindus and Persian Zoroastrians.

Hindu-Buddhist iconography from Mogao Caves in the Gobi Desert.

Culture spread along trade routes. These routes connected India with southern Burma, central and southern Siam (Thailand), the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, lower Cambodia, and Champa. The Pali and Sanskrit languages, and Indian scripts, were shared. So were Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism, Brahmanism, and Hinduism. This happened through direct contact, sacred texts, and Indian literature.

Southeast Asia developed powerful empires. These empires created amazing Hindu-Buddhist art and buildings. These artworks and buildings were as grand as those in India. They were especially impressive in their size, design, and beauty. Famous examples are Borobudur in Java and the Angkor monuments in Cambodia. The Srivijaya Empire in the south and the Khmer Empire in the north competed for influence.

A key part of this cultural link was the adoption of ancient Indian Vedic/Hindu and Buddhist culture and ideas. This happened in Myanmar, Tibet, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaya, Laos, and Cambodia. Indian scripts are found on Southeast Asian islands. These include Sumatra, Java, Bali, South Sulawesi, and the Philippines. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata had a huge impact.

One clear sign of Hindu traditions is the widespread use of the Añjali Mudrā gesture. This is a greeting and sign of respect. It is seen in the Indian namasté. Similar gestures are known throughout Southeast Asia. These include the Cambodian sampeah, the Indonesian sembah, the Japanese gassho, and the Thai wai.

Beyond the Himalaya and Hindukush mountains, along the Silk Route, Indian influence was linked to Buddhism. Tibet and Khotan directly inherited Buddhism from the Ganges region. Many Tibetan monks even knew Sanskrit well. In Khotan, the Ramayana was popular in the Khotanese language. In Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, many Buddhist monasteries were built. These countries were like stepping stones for monks. They brought Indian Buddhist texts and images to China. Further north, in the Gobi Desert, statues of Ganesha and Kartikeya were found. They were alongside Buddhist images in the Mogao Caves.

Shared Cultural Elements

Religion, Stories, and Folklore

Rama, Sita and Lakshmana in Thai shadow play.

Hinduism is practiced by most people in Bali. The Cham people of Vietnam also practice Hinduism. Many Thai, Khmer, and Burmese people worship Hindu gods. This is a mix of beliefs.
Brahmins helped spread Hinduism in Southeast Asia. Even today, royal courts like Thailand's have Hindu rituals for the King. These are performed by Hindu Brahmins.
Garuda, a Hindu mythical bird, is on the coats of arms of Indonesia, Thailand, and Ulaanbaatar.
Muay Thai, a fighting art, is the Thai version of the Hindu Musti-yuddha martial art.
Kaharingan, a local religion of the Dayak people in Borneo, is seen as a form of Hinduism in Indonesia.
Philippine mythology includes the supreme god Bathala. It also has the idea of Diwata and the belief in Karma. All these come from Hindu-Buddhist ideas.
Malay folklore has many Indian-influenced mythical characters. Examples include Bidadari, Jentayu, Garuda, and Naga.
Wayang shadow puppets and classical dance-dramas in Indonesia, Cambodia, Malaysia, and Thailand tell stories from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

Caste System

Indians brought their religions to Southeast Asia. This started the Hindu and Buddhist cultures there. They also introduced the caste system to places like Java, Bali, Madura, and Sumatra. The caste system adopted there was not as strict as in India. It was changed to fit the local ways. Both systems shared the idea that people have different places in society. This also helped create highly organized central states. Indians were able to share their religion, political ideas, literature, stories, and art.

Buildings and Monuments

The 9th-century Shiva temple of Prambanan in Central Java near Yogyakarta. It is the largest Hindu temple in Indonesia.

The same style of Hindu temple architecture was used in many old temples in Southeast Asia. This includes Angkor Wat, dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. It is shown on the flag of Cambodia. Also, Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia's largest Hindu temple, is dedicated to the Trimurti—Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma.
Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia, is the world's largest Buddhist monument. It looks like a giant stone mandala with stupas on top. It is thought to combine Indian Buddhist ideas with older local stone pyramid traditions.
The towers of 15th- to 16th-century mosques in Indonesia, like the Great Mosque of Demak and Kudus mosque, look like Majapahit Hindu temples.
The Batu Caves in Malaysia are a very popular Hindu shrine outside India. It is a main spot for the yearly Thaipusam festival in Malaysia. It attracts over 1.5 million pilgrims. This makes it one of the largest religious gatherings ever.
Erawan Shrine, dedicated to Brahma, is one of the most popular religious shrines in Thailand.

Sports and Games

Some traditional Indian games are thought to have spread throughout Southeast Asia. Variations of Indian games like atya-patya and gilli danda can be found there. Also, the Indonesian hom pim pa (a way to pick players before a game) might use a Sanskrit phrase.

Language and Literature Influence

How Languages Were Influenced

A map of East, South, and Southeast Asia. Red shows where Chinese characters are or were used. Green shows where Indic scripts are or were used. Blue shows where other scripts were used.

Scholars like Sheldon Pollock use the term Sanskrit Cosmopolis. This describes a region where cultures exchanged ideas for a thousand years. This happened without necessarily involving large movements of people or colonization. Pollock's 2006 book The Language of the Gods in the World of Men argues that Sanskrit was a unifying language. It was like Latin in Europe.

Sanskrit writings from the early Common Era are the oldest known forms of writing. They spread all the way to Southeast Asia. Sanskrit slowly became widely used as a language. This is clear in regions from Bangladesh to Cambodia, Malaysia, and Thailand. It also influenced some of the larger Indonesian islands. In addition, alphabets from Burmese, Thai, Lao, and Cambodian languages are based on Indian ideas. They have been changed to fit local languages.

Sanskrit and related languages also influenced their Tibeto-Burman-speaking neighbors to the north. This happened through the spread of Buddhist texts. Buddhism's spread to Tibet meant many Sanskrit texts only survived in Tibetan translations. Buddhism was also brought to China by Mahayanist missionaries. They mostly translated Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit texts. Many terms were directly copied and added to Chinese vocabulary.

In Southeast Asia, languages like Thai and Lao have many loan words from Sanskrit. Khmer has fewer, but still some. For example, in Thai, Rāvaṇa, the legendary king of Sri Lanka, is called 'Thosakanth'. This comes from his Sanskrit name 'Daśakaṇṭha' ("having ten necks").

Many Sanskrit loanwords are also found in Austronesian languages. For example, in Javanese, especially the old form, nearly half the words come from Sanskrit. Other Austronesian languages, like traditional Malay and modern Indonesian, also get many words from Sanskrit. However, they also have many words from Arabic. Similarly, Philippine languages like Tagalog have many Sanskrit loanwords.

A Sanskrit loanword found in many Southeast Asian languages is bhāṣā, meaning spoken language. It is used to mean language in general. For example, bahasa in Malay, Indonesian, and Tausug. It is basa in Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese. It is phasa in Thai and Lao, bhasa in Burmese, and phiesa in Khmer.

Literature and Writing Systems

Pages of Kakawin Ramayana, the version of Ramayana from Java and Bali.

Sanskrit was used in all parts of life, even for legal purposes. Sanskrit words and phrases appeared in old courts. They helped set up legal procedures based on Indian models. The idea of laws and organizations, especially the "God King" concept, was adopted by many Southeast Asian rulers. Rulers like those of the Lin-I Dynasty in Vietnam used Sanskrit. They also built temples to the Indian god Shiva. Many later rulers even saw themselves as "reincarnations or descendants" of Hindu gods. However, when Buddhism arrived, this view slowly changed.

Shared Language Features

In the Malay Archipelago: Indonesian, Javanese, and Malay have taken many Sanskrit words into their vocabulary. Many languages of native lowland Filipinos like Tagalog, Ilocano, and Visayan also have many Sanskrit loanwords.
In Mainland Southeast Asia: Thai, Lao, Burmese, and Khmer languages have taken a lot of Sanskrit and Pali words.
Many Indonesian names come from Sanskrit (e.g., Dewi Sartika, Megawati Sukarnoputri, Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, Teuku Wisnu).
Southeast Asian languages are traditionally written with Indian alphabets. They have extra letters not pronounced in the local language. This helps keep the original Sanskrit spelling. For example, the name of the late King of Thailand, Bhumibol Adulyadej, is spelled "Bhumibol" (ภูมิพล) in Sanskrit. But it is pronounced "Phumipon" (พูมิพน) in Thai. This is because of Thai-Sanskrit pronunciation rules.

Place Names with Indian Roots

Ruins of Ayutthaya in Thailand. Ayutthaya gets its name from the ancient Indian city of Ayodhya.

Suvarnabhumi is an old name for Southeast Asia. In Sanskrit, it means "The Land of Gold." Thailand's Suvarnabhumi Airport is named after this.
Many Indonesian toponyms (place names) have Indian connections. For example, Madura is like Mathura. Serayu is like the Sarayu river. Semeru is like Sumeru mountain. Kalingga comes from the Kalinga Kingdom. Ngayogyakarta is from Ayodhya.
The old Siamese city of Ayutthaya also comes from the Ramayana's Ayodhya.
Some place names simply use their Sanskrit origin. Singapore comes from Singapura (Singha-pura, the "lion city"). Jakarta comes from Jaya and kreta ("complete victory").
Some Indonesian areas like Indragiri Hulu and Indragiri Hilir come from the Indragiri River. Indragiri itself means "mountain of Indra."
Some Thai place names also have Indian connections or Sanskrit origins. For example, Ratchaburi comes from Raja-puri ("king's city"). Nakhon Si Thammarat comes from Nagara Sri Dharmaraja.
The use of Sanskrit for new words continues today. In 1962, Indonesia changed the colonial name of the New Guinean city of Hollandia to Jayapura ("glorious city"). The Orange mountain range became Jayawijaya Mountains.
Malaysia named its new government seat Putrajaya ("prince of glory") in 1999.

Indianization of Southeast Asia

Austronesian proto-historic and historic maritime trade network in the Indian Ocean.

Hinduism expansion in Asia. It started around the 1st century from the Indian Subcontinent to the rest of Asia, especially Southeast Asia. This is marked by early Hindu settlements and states in Southeast Asia.

Indianization is different from direct colonialism. These Indianized lands were not taken over by Indian organizations or states. The only exceptions were the Chola invasions in medieval times. Instead, Indian cultural influence slowly spread through Southeast Asia. This happened through trade routes and language use. It made Indian traditions a part of the region. The interactions between India and Southeast Asia involved waves of influence. Sometimes, Indian culture simply found its way into the region. At other times, influence was used for control.

Southeast Asia became a central meeting point for Indian and East Asian sea trade routes. This helped its economy and culture grow. The earliest Hindu kingdoms appeared in Sumatra and Java. Then came mainland states like Funan and Champa. Adopting Indian ideas helped create central states and organized societies. Local leaders saw the benefits of Hinduism and Indian ways of government, culture, and literature. Ruling based on universal moral principles, like the devaraja concept, was more appealing than the Chinese idea of intermediaries.

The earliest Hindu kingdoms appeared in Sumatra and Java. Then came mainland states like Funan and Champa. Adopting Indian ideas helped create central states and local caste systems in Southeast Asia.

Theories of Indianization

A Borobudur ship from the 8th century. These were large native outrigger trading vessels, possibly from the Sailendra and Srivijaya thalassocracies.

There is no single clear answer about how Indianization spread. Many theories have come up since the early 1900s. The main question is usually about who brought Indian ideas and culture to Southeast Asia.

Trade during the Iron Age changed the region's strategy. Austronesian sailors from Island Southeast Asia first traded with Southern India and Sri Lanka around 500 BCE. This brought Southeast Asian items (like catamarans, outrigger boats, and paan) and plants (like coconuts and sandalwood) to South Asia. It also connected the cultures of India and China. These early Austronesian trade routes later became part of the larger spice trade network. Tamil and Arab traders also used them. This long contact led to cultural exchange, not just trade.

Another theory says that Indianization spread through the Vaishya traders. They played a role in spreading Indian culture and language through trade. There were many reasons for Vaishya traders to go to Southeast Asia. The most important was gold. Around the 4th century CE, India needed gold. This was because the Roman Empire controlled land trade routes. So, many Vaishya traders looked to the seas for new gold. Southeast Asia had a lot of it. However, saying Indianization only spread through trade is not enough. Indianization affected all parts of Southeast Asian society, not just merchants.

Another theory suggests Indianization spread through the warrior class of Kshatriya. This idea explains how states formed in Southeast Asia. These warriors came to conquer local people and set up their own power. However, this theory has not gained much interest from historians. There is little written evidence to support it.

The most accepted theory is that Indianization spread through Brahman scholars. These Brahmans brought many Hindu religious and philosophical traditions. They spread them to the elite classes of Southeast Asian states. Once these traditions were adopted by the elite, they spread to all lower classes. This explains why Indianization is seen in all parts of Southeast Asian society. Brahmans were also experts in art, architecture, and politics. This explains why many Indian-style laws and buildings were adopted in Southeast Asia.

Adaptation and Acceptance

Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world.

It is not fully known how people from India moved, interacted, and settled. Or if Southeast Asians visited India and brought ideas back. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled from India to Southeast Asia. They settled there in the first few centuries of the Common Era. A strong push certainly came from the ruling classes. They invited Brahmans to serve in their courts as priests, astrologers, and advisors. Divinity and royalty were closely linked in these states. Hindu rituals confirmed the power of the ruler. Brahmans and priests from India played a key role in supporting ruling families. They did this through exact rituals. This helped create more centralized kingdoms. These kingdoms appeared in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries.

The 9th century Shiva temple in Prambanan compound. It is decorated with bas-reliefs of Ramayana and is near Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements like the Rāmāyaṇa and the Mahābhārata were adopted. They were also changed to have a regional character. The caste system was adopted, but it was never used everywhere. It was mostly for a select group of nobles. It is hard to date when Indianization happened in Southeast Asia. This is because the buildings and ruins found are similar to those in India.

States like Srivijaya, Mataram, Majapahit, and the Khmer empire were strong. They had continuous land, many people, and rich economies. They were as powerful as those in India. Borobudur and Prambanan in Java, and Angkor in Cambodia, are examples of unique regional culture and style.

Southeast Asia is called Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum – the golden land. It is also called Suvarnadvipa – the golden Islands in Sanskrit. Traders from eastern India, especially Kalinga, often visited it. Cultural and trading ties between the powerful Chola dynasty of South India and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led to the Bay of Bengal being called "The Chola Lake." The Chola attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century CE are the only example of Indian rulers attacking Southeast Asia militarily. The Pala dynasty of Bengal, which controlled the heart of Buddhist India, kept close economic, cultural, and religious ties, especially with Srivijaya.

Religion, Power, and Legitimacy

Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in Ubud.

Before Indian influence, political and social systems in Southeast Asia did not focus much on family lineage. Hindu God kingship allowed rulers to gain loyalty. It helped them create diverse states. The worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined with ancestor worship. So, Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed to be semi-divine. They said they were descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the connection to sacred land and social structures, are part of Hinduism's global features. The epic stories of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further supported rulers. They were seen as gods who fought evil and protected order.

Hinduism does not have one founder, a central power in India, or a strict organization. This allowed individual rulers to have religious freedom. It also allows for many forms of gods. It focuses on the Trimurti, the three main gods: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. They are responsible for creating, preserving, and destroying the universe.

Hinduism and Buddhism greatly impacted the civilizations in Southeast Asia. They helped create written traditions. Trade systems in the 3rd and 4th centuries were key to spreading these religions. Buddhist monks and Hindu priests joined traders to share their religious and cultural values. Along the Mekong delta, signs of Indianized religious models are seen in communities called Funan. The earliest records are carved on a rock in Vocanh. These carvings are Buddhist records and South Indian scripts written in Sanskrit. They date back to the early 3rd century. Indian religion was deeply absorbed by local cultures. They created their own unique versions to reflect their own ideas.

Champa, Dvaravati, Funan, Gangga Negara, Kadaram, Kalingga, Kutai, Langkasuka, Pagan, Pan Pan, Po-ni, and Tarumanagara adopted Hinduism's ideas about the universe and rituals by the 1st to 4th centuries CE. They also adopted the devaraja concept of kingship and Sanskrit as their official writing. Despite this cultural blending, these kingdoms were independent.

Decline of Indianization

Map of South-east Asia around 900 AD. It shows the Khmer Empire in red, Srivijaya in green, and Champa in yellow.

Changes in Khmer Kingdom

Indianization changed many cultural and political aspects. It also changed spiritual beliefs. A "Northern Culture" began in the early 14th century. This led to a quick decline in Indian kingdoms. The fall of Hindu kingdoms and the rise of Buddhist ones led to the growth of orthodox Sinhalese Buddhism. This was a key reason for the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) became centers of Buddhism. This made Buddhism more popular than Hinduism.

Rise of Islam

The rise of Buddhism was one reason for Indianization ending. But Islamic control also took over Hindu kingdoms in the 13th century. As Islam came to these traditional Hindu kingdoms, trade grew a lot. Indian Muslims became merchants all over Southeast Asia. As trade became more common in Southeast Asia, where Indianization once thrived, more people became Muslim. This Islamic influence spread to many trade centers across Southeast Asia, including Malacca. This led to a widespread rise of Islam.

Indianized Kingdoms of Southeast Asia

Mainland Kingdoms

Funan: Funan was a state in the southernmost part of the Indochinese peninsula from the 1st to 6th centuries. The name Funan is not found in local texts. It comes from Chinese records. Funan is known as the oldest Hindu culture in this region. This suggests long social and economic interaction with India and sea trade partners. Cultural and religious ideas reached Funan through the Indian Ocean trade route. Trade with India began well before 500 BC. Funan's language was an early form of Khmer, and its written form was Sanskrit.

Stone lingam found in Cát Tiên, southern Vietnam.

Chenla: Chenla was the state that followed Funan. It existed from the late 6th century to the early 9th century in Indochina, before the Khmer Empire. Like Funan, Chenla was in a key location where trade routes from India and East Asia met. This led to long-lasting social, economic, and cultural influence. They adopted the Sanskrit writing system from the south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya dynasty. Chenla's first ruler, Vīravarman, adopted the idea of divine kingship. He used the concept of Harihara, a Hindu god combining multiple powers. His successors continued this tradition. They followed the rules of Manusmṛti, the Laws of Manu, for the Kshatriya warrior class. This showed their political and religious authority.
Langkasuka: Langkasuka (meaning "resplendent land of bliss" in Sanskrit) was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the Malay Peninsula. This kingdom and the Old Kedah settlement were likely the earliest Indianized areas on the Malay Peninsula. Tradition says the kingdom was founded in the 2nd century. Malay legends say Langkasuka was founded at Kedah and later moved to Pattani.
Champa: The kingdoms of Champa controlled what is now south and central Vietnam. The earliest kingdom, Lâm Ấp, was described by Chinese sources around 192 CE. The main religion was Hinduism, and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the late 1400s, the Vietnamese, who were influenced by China, had destroyed the last parts of Champa. The last remaining Chams began to scatter in 1471. Many resettled in Khmer territory.
Kambuja: The Khmer Empire began in the early 9th century. Its founder, Jayavarman II, had a mythical ceremony at Mount Kulen in 802 CE. A series of powerful rulers followed, continuing the Hindu devaraja tradition. They ruled during the classical era of Khmer civilization until the 11th century. Buddhism was later introduced into royal religious practice for a time. During the Khmer empire, administration, farming, architecture, water management, logistics, city planning, literature, and art developed greatly. They showed a unique expression of Hindu ideas about the universe.
Mon kingdoms: From the 9th century until 1539, the Mon kingdoms (Dvaravati, Hariphunchai, Pegu) were important. They helped Indianized culture spread in lower Burma. They had strong ties with Sri Lanka.
Sukhothai: This was the first kingdom of Tai peoples to become independent from the Khmer Empire. It started in the 13th century. Sukhothai was a step towards the Ayutthaya Kingdom and the Kingdom of Siam. Although ethnically Thai, Sukhothai continued many traditions of the Buddhist Mon-Dvaravati civilizations and the Khmer Empire.

Island Kingdoms

Ganesha shrine in Bali. This is a common custom from Majapahit.

Salakanagara: Salakanagara was the first recorded Indianized kingdom in Western Java. It was founded by an Indian trader who married a local Sundanese princess. This kingdom existed between 130 and 362 CE.
Tarumanagara: Tarumanagara was an early Sundanese Indianized kingdom near modern Jakarta. According to an inscription, its ruler Purnavarman built a canal. This changed the course of a river and drained a coastal area for farming and settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman linked himself with Vishnu. Brahmins performed rituals for the water project.
Kalingga: Kalingga was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java. Along with Kutai and Tarumanagara, it is one of the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
Malayu: Malayu was an old Southeast Asian kingdom. Chinese sources and the Buddhist monk Yijing provide most of the information. Yijing visited in 671 CE. He said Srivijaya "absorbed" Malayu by 692 CE. But it had "broken away" by the late 11th century. The exact location of the kingdom is still being studied by historians.
Srivijaya: From the 7th to 13th centuries, Srivijaya was a sea empire centered on Sumatra in Indonesia. It adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism. Srivijaya was a center of Vajrayana Buddhism. It attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia. A Chinese monk reported that the kingdom had over a thousand Buddhist scholars. A famous local Buddhist scholar, Dharmakirti, taught Buddhist philosophy in Srivijaya and Nalanda (in India). He was the teacher of Atisha. This Buddhist Malay empire usually had good relations with China and the Pala Empire in Bengal. An inscription from 860 CE says that King Balaputra built a monastery at Nalanda university. The Srivijaya kingdom ended in the 13th century. This was due to the expansion of the Javanese, Singhasari, and Majapahit empires.
Tambralinga: Tambralinga was an ancient kingdom on the Malay Peninsula. It was influenced by Srivijaya. The name was forgotten until scholars recognized Tambralinga as Nagara Sri Dharmaraja (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Early records are few, but it is thought to have existed from the 7th to the 14th century. Tambralinga first sent tribute to the Chinese emperor in 616 CE. In Sanskrit, Tambra means "red," and linga means "symbol," usually representing the divine energy of Shiva.
Mataram: The Mataram Kingdom thrived between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was first in central Java, then moved to east Java. This kingdom built many Hindu-Buddhist temples in Java. These include the Borobudur Buddhist mandala and the Prambanan Trimurti Hindu temple, mainly for Shiva. The Sailendras were the ruling family in central Java at first. They were later replaced by the Isyana Dynasty.
Kadiri: In the 10th century, Mataram challenged Srivijaya's power. This led to Srivijaya destroying the Mataram capital in the early 11th century. King Airlangga (around 1020–1050) restored the kingdom. After his death, it split. The new state of Kediri, in eastern Java, became the center of Javanese culture for the next two centuries. Its influence spread to eastern Southeast Asia. The spice trade became very important as demand from European countries grew. One main source was the Maluku Islands (or "Spice Islands") in Indonesia. So Kediri became a strong trading nation.
Singhasari: In the 13th century, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown. Singhasari rose in east Java. This new state grew under its warrior-king Kertanegara. He was killed by a prince from the previous Kediri dynasty. This prince then started the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit. By the mid-14th century, Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula. It also controlled parts of Borneo, southern Celebes, and the Moluccas. It also had much influence on the mainland.
Majapahit: The Majapahit empire, in East Java, followed the Singhasari empire. It flourished in the Indonesian islands between the 13th and 15th centuries. Known for its navy, the Javanese empire stretched from Lamuri in Aceh to Wanin in Papua. Majapahit was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in Maritime Southeast Asia. Most of Balinese Hindu culture, traditions, and civilizations came from Majapahit. Many Majapahit nobles, priests, and artisans found homes in Bali after Majapahit declined to the Demak Sultanate.
Galuh: Galuh was an ancient Hindu kingdom in eastern Tatar Pasundan (now west Java and Banyumasan region of central Java), Indonesia. It was formed after the Tarumanagara kingdom fell around the 7th century. Galuh was traditionally linked to the eastern Priangan cultural region. Its territory stretched from the Citarum river in the west to the Pamali and Serayu rivers in the east. Its capital was in Kawali, near today's Ciamis city.
Sunda: The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom in western Java from 669 CE to around 1579 CE. It covered today's Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and western Central Java. According to old records, the eastern border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River and the Serayu River in Central Java. Its capital was Pakuan Pajajaran.

Indianized Kingdoms of Southwest Asia

Surya sitting on a Corinthian chariot from ancient Afghanistan.

The eastern parts of Afghanistan were politically considered part of India. Buddhism and Hinduism were strong there until the Muslim conquest. Kabul and Zabulistan, which had Buddhism and other Indian religions, resisted Muslim advances for two centuries. The Kabul Shahi and Zunbils remained unconquered until the Saffarid and Ghaznavid conquests. The kingdom of Zun and its rulers, the Zunbils, were important because they blocked the Arabs from invading the Indus Valley.

According to historian André Wink, in southern and eastern Afghanistan, the regions of Zamindawar and Zabulistan and Kabul were strongly opposed for over two centuries (643 to 870 AD). This opposition came from the local rulers, the Zunbils and the related Kabul-Shahs. This area, along with Makran and Baluchistan and much of Sindh, was a cultural and political border zone between India and Persia. He also wrote that in the 7th to 9th centuries, the Zunbils and Kabulshahs ruled a mostly Indian, not Persian, area. Arab geographers often called the Zunbil "that king of al-Hind."

Archaeological sites like the 8th-century Tapa Sardar and Gardez show a mix of Buddhism with strong Shaivst (Shiva worship) art. Around 644 CE, the Chinese monk Xuanzang wrote about Zabul. He described it as mainly pagan, but also respecting Mahayana Buddhism. The god Śuna was described as the main deity of the country.

The Caliph Al-Ma'mun (ruled 813–833 A.D.) led the last Arab attacks on Kabul and Zabul. The conflict ended with the empire's breakup. The Rutbil were made to pay double tribute to the Caliph. The king of Kabul was captured and converted to Islam. The last Zunbil was killed by Ya'qub bin al-Layth in 865. Meanwhile, the Hindu Shahi of Kabul were defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni. Indian soldiers were part of the Ghaznavid army. The 14th-century Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta said Hindu Kush meant "slayer of Indians." This was because many slaves from India died from its harsh weather.

Zabulistan

Zabulistan, a historical region in southern Afghanistan, was a collection of Hindu rulers. It fell to the Turk Shahis in the 7th century. This rule continued until the 11th century. The Hindu kingdom of Kapisha split, and its western part formed a separate state called Zabul. This was a family division, as Kabul and Zabul had family and political ties.

The Zunbils, a royal family south of the Hindu Kush, worshipped Zhuna. This was possibly a sun god linked to the Hindu god Surya. He is sometimes called Zoor or Zoon. On coins, he is shown with flames from his head. Huen Tsang called him "sunagir." He has been linked to the Hindu god Aditya at Multan. His shrine was on a sacred mountain in Zamindawar. It seems he was brought there by Hepthalites, replacing an older god.

Buddhist Turk Shahi Dynasty of Kabul

Newly excavated Buddhist stupa at Mes Aynak in Logar Province. Similar stupas have been discovered in neighboring Ghazni Province, including in the northern Samangan Province.

This area was ruled by the Turk Shahis. They took over Kabul in the 7th century and were later attacked by Arabs. The Turk Shahi dynasty was Buddhist. A Hindu dynasty followed them shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 A.D.

The Turk Shahi were a Buddhist Turkic dynasty. They ruled from Kabul and Kapisa from the 7th to 9th centuries. They replaced the Nezak dynasty. Kabulistan was the center of the Turk Shahi area. Sometimes it included Zabulistan and Gandhara. The last Shahi ruler of Kabul, Lagaturman, was removed by a Brahmin minister around 850. This marked the end of the Buddhist Turk Shahi dynasty and the start of the Hindu Shahi dynasty of Kabul.

Hindu Shahi Dynasty of Kabul

The Amb Hindu Temple complex was built between the 7th and 9th centuries CE during the reign of the Hindu Shahi Empire.

The Hindu Shahi (850–1026 CE) was a Hindu dynasty. They ruled over the Kabul Valley, Gandhara (modern-day Pakistan and northeastern Afghanistan), and parts of northwestern India. This was during the early medieval period. They followed the Turk Shahis. There were two dynasties in Kabul Valley and Gandhara: the Kshatriya dynasty and the Brahmana dynasty. Both used the title Shahi. Information about these rulers comes from old writings, coins, and stone inscriptions. In 1973, historian Yogendra Mishra suggested that Hindu Shahis were Kshatriyas.

According to available inscriptions, the Hindu Shahi kings were: Vakkadeva, Kamalavarman, Bhimadeva, Jayapala, Anandapala, Trilochanapala, and Bhimpala.

Vakkadeva: According to a recently found inscription in northern Afghanistan, Veka (Vakkadeva) conquered northern Afghanistan "with eightfold forces" and ruled there. He built a Shiva temple there. He also issued copper coins with an Elephant and Lion design.
Kamalavarman: During Kamalavarman's rule, the Saffarid power weakened. Sistan eventually became part of the Samanid Empire. There was general disorder, and control of Zabulistan changed often. The Shahis took advantage of this. A small Hindu power emerged at Ghazni, supported by the Shahis.
Jayapala: With Jayapala, a new dynasty began ruling the former Shahi kingdom. This change was smooth. Jayapala used the name-suffix Deva from his predecessor's dynasty. He also used the pala name-ending of his own family. Jayapala did not issue coins in his own name. Coins with the legend Samantadeva were likely made during his rule. As Bhima's successor, Jayapala was a Shahi king of Kabul, which now included Punjab. He was described as "the greatest of the Rais of Hindustan."

Balkh

From historical evidence, it seems Tokharistan (Bactria) was heavily settled by Arabs. Buddhism thrived there, and Sanskrit studies continued until the conquest. Hui'Chao, who visited around 726, said Arabs ruled it and all inhabitants were Buddhists. Balkh was finally conquered by Qutayba ibn Muslim in 705. Among Balkh's Buddhist monasteries, the largest was Nava Vihara. It was later called Naw Bahara after the Islamic conquest. It is not known how long it remained a place of worship.

Ghur

Amir Suri, a king of the Ghurid dynasty, and his son Muhammad ibn Suri, were Buddhists. They ruled from the 9th to 10th centuries. They were seen as pagans by surrounding Muslims. It was only during the rule of Muhammad's son Abu Ali ibn Muhammad that the Ghurid dynasty became Islamic. Amir Suri was a descendant of the Ghurid king Amir Banji. His rule was approved by the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid. He fought the Saffarid ruler Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar. Ghur remained a pagan area until the 11th century. Mahmud of Ghazni raided it and left Muslim teachers to spread Islam. The region became Muslim by the 12th century.

Nuristan

The large area from modern Nuristan to Kashmir contained many "Kafir" cultures and Indo-European languages. They became Islamic over a long time. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of nearby Badakhshan began in the 8th century. Peristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century. Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule to the region. The decline of Buddhism led to it becoming very isolated.

Later waves of Pashtun immigration, before or during the 16th and 17th centuries, moved the original Kafirs and Pashayi people from the Kunar Valley and Laghman valley to less fertile mountains. Before their conversion, the Kafir people of Kafiristan practiced a form of ancient Hinduism mixed with local traditions. They were called Kafirs because they remained pagan. They were politically independent until conquered and forced to convert by Afghan Amir Abdul Rahman Khan in 1895–1896. Others converted to avoid paying jizya (a tax).

In 1020–21, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna led a campaign against Kafiristan. These people worshipped the lion. Some historians believe they might have been worshipping Buddha in the form of a lion. Others state they had a Hindu temple that was destroyed.

Genetic Influence

A 2022 study found that Indian cultural influence led to a notable mix of South Asian genes (about 2%-16%) in people from Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Myanmar, and Singapore. Exceptions were isolated hill tribes and current hunter-gatherer groups in Thailand.

Images for kids

Hindoostan and Farther India in a 1864 map by Samuel Augustus Mitchell