Timeline of British diplomatic history facts for kids

Kids Encyclopedia Facts

This timeline shares the big moments in how Britain (and before that, England) dealt with other countries, from 1485 all the way to today. It's like looking at a friendship bracelet, but instead of beads, it's made of alliances, wars, and important agreements!

For Narrative history, see History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom. For general topics, see Timeline of English history.

England's Early Years: 1500s Foreign Policy
The Stuart Era: 1600s Foreign Policy
- Uniting Thrones and New Rivals
- Wars and Alliances: A Changing Europe
The 1700s: Wars, Unions, and New Leaders
The Napoleonic Era: 1789–1815
- Revolution, War, and Empire
Britain's Imperial Century: 1815–1860
- Managing Europe and Expanding Influence
Global Power and New Challenges: 1860–1896
- Unification, Civil War, and Imperial Expansion
The World Wars and Beyond: 1897–1945
- Naval Races and New Alliances
- World War I and Its Aftermath
Between the Wars and World War II: 1920–1945
- Post-War Adjustments and Rising Tensions
- Appeasement and World War II
The Cold War and Beyond: 1945–1989
- Post-War Challenges and Decolonization
Modern British Foreign Policy: Since 1990
- New Global Landscape
Key People in British Diplomacy
See also

England's Early Years: 1500s Foreign Policy

Tudor Kings and Queens: Shaping England's Place

Henry VII became king in 1485. He started the Tudor family as rulers and ended a long civil war called the "Wars of the Roses".
His foreign policy was about making friends with Spain. To seal this friendship, his son Arthur married the Spanish princess Catherine of Aragon. Sadly, Arthur died young, at age 15.
Henry VII changed England's old plan of trying to take more land in France. He focused more on protecting England itself.
From 1485 to 1509, the king helped England's wool trade with the Netherlands. He also helped English merchants compete with the Hanseatic League, a group of powerful German trading cities.
In 1497, he sent John Cabot to explore new lands across the ocean. He also started building up the Royal Navy, England's powerful fleet of ships.
England tried to stop France from controlling Brittany, a region in France, but failed after three expensive military trips.
In 1502, England signed a "forever peace" treaty with Scotland. King James IV of Scotland married Henry VII's daughter, Margaret Tudor. This marriage eventually led to the Scottish royal family (the Stuarts) taking over the English throne later on.

Henry VIII and His Big Changes

From 1509 to 1547, Henry VIII was king. He tried to claim the French throne again, but France was much stronger now, and England only held onto Calais.
England joined Spain in a war against France from 1511 to 1516, but they lost.
In 1513, the English army defeated and killed King James IV of Scotland at the Battle of Flodden Field. James had been allied with France.
In 1520, Henry VIII met the French king, Francis I, at a very fancy event called the "Field of the Cloth of Gold" near Calais. No alliance came from it.
England then allied with Spain again in a war against France (1521–1526) and won.
In 1525, Queen Catherine didn't have a son, which Henry wanted. He decided to get a divorce, which made Spain very angry.
From 1526 to 1530, England allied with France, but Spain won this war.
In 1533, Henry VIII broke away from the Pope in Rome because of his marriage problems. He declared himself the head of the English church. Catholic Spain supported the Pope.
Later in 1533, Pope Clement VII kicked Henry out of the church and said his divorce from Catherine was not allowed.
In 1542, England went to war with Scotland. King James V was defeated at the Battle of Solway Moss.
From 1551 to 1559, England was allied with Spain against France and won.

Mary I and Elizabeth I: Different Paths

From 1553 to 1558, Mary I was queen. She wanted to bring Catholicism back to England and allied with Catholic Spain.
In 1554, Mary I married Prince Philip of Spain, who became king of Spain in 1556. This "Spanish marriage" was not popular in England. Philip pushed Mary into a war with France, which led to England losing Calais in 1558.
From 1558 to 1603, Elizabeth I was Queen. Her main advisor, Sir William Cecil, helped her avoid big European wars.
Her spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham, stopped many plots by Spain or France to kill the Queen.
England's long-term goal became to unite the British Isles as Protestant lands, by conquering Ireland and making friends with Scotland.
The Royal Navy was made stronger to defend England.
In 1573, a treaty with Spain (Convention of Nymegen) promised to stop English privateers (like Drake and Hawkins) from raiding Spanish ships.
From 1580 to the 1620s, English merchants formed the Levant Company to trade with the Ottoman Empire. They set up a base in Istanbul, and trade grew as the Turks bought weapons and cloth.
In 1585, England signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Netherlands, supporting the Dutch revolt against Spain with soldiers and money. Spain saw this as a declaration of war and prepared a huge fleet to invade England.
From 1585 to 1604, England and Spain had an undeclared naval conflict. England focused on raiding Spanish ports like Cadiz and capturing Spanish merchant ships. This was cheaper than land battles, and privateers (called "Sea Dogs") made a lot of money from captured ships, helping to pay for the war.
In 1588, the huge Spanish invasion fleet, the Spanish Armada, was defeated. This was celebrated for centuries as a major victory against England's Catholic enemy.

The Stuart Era: 1600s Foreign Policy

Uniting Thrones and New Rivals

The Stuart period lasted from 1603 to 1714.
In 1603, James VI of Scotland became King of England (as James I of England). This permanently joined the two thrones.
In 1604, King James made peace with Spain in the Treaty of London. Both sides agreed to stop supporting rebellions against each other.

After years of conflict, Spain and England sign the Treaty of London on August 29, 1604. This painting shows the meeting.

In 1613, James married his daughter Elizabeth to Frederick V, Elector Palatine, a leader of German Protestant princes. This connected England with forces against the powerful Habsburg family.
From 1613 to 1620, the Netherlands became England's main rival in trade, fishing, and whaling. The Dutch made alliances with Sweden and the Hanseatic League, while England allied with Denmark.
In the 1610s, England became involved with Russia, strengthening the Muscovy Company, which had a monopoly on trade there. In 1613, it also gained a monopoly on whaling in Spitsbergen.
In 1613, the English captain John Saris arrived in Hirado, Japan, to set up a trading post. He met with Tokugawa Ieyasu. However, only four English ships brought goods directly from London to Japan between 1613 and 1623.
In 1623, the Amboyna massacre happened in Japan, and England closed its trading base in Hirado. Relations between England and Japan ended for over two centuries.
From 1624 to 1625, the king turned to France after marriage talks with Spain failed. France wanted England to stop persecuting Catholics as a condition for marriage, but the talks failed.
From 1627 to 1628, England tried to help the besieged Huguenots (French Protestants) in the Siege of La Rochelle but failed. This was England's only major involvement in the Thirty Years' War.
From 1639 to 1640, England fought the Bishops' Wars with Scotland.
In 1642, the English Civil War began.

Wars and Alliances: A Changing Europe

From 1652 to 1654, England fought the First Anglo-Dutch War.
From 1654 to 1660, England fought the Anglo-Spanish War (1654–60).
In 1657, England signed an alliance with France against Spain.
In 1661, King Louis XIV of France began his personal rule. As leader of the most powerful nation in Western Europe, he aggressively pursued French interests and expanded France's borders. Until his death in 1715, France's desire for dominance was the main driver of diplomacy in Western Europe.
From 1665 to 1667, England fought the Second Anglo-Dutch War.
In 1665, Charles II of Spain began his reign. He was the last of the Spanish Habsburg family and had no children. His expected death raised a big question about who would inherit the Spanish throne. The main candidates were the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs.
In 1667, France attacked Spain in the War of Devolution, taking over parts of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté. London saw France possibly taking over the entire Spanish Netherlands as a threat.
The Treaty of Breda ended the Dutch war in 1667. This was a big turning point, after which trade competition stopped being the main issue between England and the Netherlands.
In 1668, England, Sweden, and the United Provinces (Netherlands) formed the Triple Alliance to oppose France. Spain was defeated, but the threat of the Triple Alliance joining Spain forced France to make peace. Louis XIV took less Spanish land than he wanted. France then decided the Dutch would be their next target, so Louis tried to break up the Triple Alliance by seeking friendship with England and Sweden.
In 1670, the Treaty of Dover formed a secret alliance between England and France. In exchange for French money and a promise of French military help if another civil war broke out in England, King Charles II agreed to become Catholic and fight with France against the Dutch. Until the Glorious Revolution of 1688, England was a close ally of France.
From 1672 to 1674, the Third Anglo-Dutch War began.
In 1673, the secret pro-Catholic Treaty of Dover was revealed, causing a public outcry against the war and the king.
From 1688 to 1689, William of Orange invaded from the Netherlands as King James II fled. William became William III. This event is called the Glorious Revolution.
Louis XIV continued to recognize the overthrown James II as the rightful king of England. This policy, known as Jacobitism, was a major factor in British foreign policy until the mid-1700s.
On May 12, 1689, England joined the anti-French League of Augsburg and declared war on France. This showed a big change in foreign policy after the Glorious Revolution.
From 1689 to 1697, England fought the Nine Years' War with France, also known as the "War of the Grand Alliance."
From 1697 to 1698, the Russian tsar, Peter I, visited England for three months during his Grand Embassy of Peter I. This improved relations and helped Russia learn about new technology, especially for ships.
On October 11, 1698, France, England, the Dutch Republic, and the Holy Roman Emperor signed a treaty. It proposed dividing Spain's lands after the expected death of Charles II among the French Bourbons, Austrian Habsburgs, and Bavarian Wittelsbachs. This treaty fell apart when Josef Ferdinand of Bavaria died in 1699.

The 1700s: Wars, Unions, and New Leaders

Spanish Succession and British Power

On March 25, 1700, another treaty was signed between France, England, and the United Provinces about the Spanish succession. It suggested the Bourbons get Naples, Sicily, Milan, and Spanish forts in Tuscany, while the Austrian Habsburgs get the rest of Spain's lands. This plan failed because the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I wanted his son Archduke Karl to have the entire Spanish empire.
On November 1, 1700, Charles II of Spain died. He left all of Spain's lands to Duke Philippe of Anjou, the second son of the French Dauphin, who became King Felipe V of Spain.
King Louis XIV of France then openly stated that Philip could also inherit the French throne. This created the possibility of France and Spain joining to become a huge Catholic superpower, which would dominate Europe.
Louis also took this chance to remind everyone that he recognized the Catholic the Old Pretender as King James III of England. Louis's actions were seen as a big threat to England and almost guaranteed a war.
From 1701 to 1715, Britain fought the War of the Spanish Succession against France and Spain. Britain was part of a "Grand Alliance" with Austria, Prussia, and the Dutch Republic, supporting the Habsburg Archduke Karl of Austria's claim to the Spanish throne.
On May 15, 1702, war was declared against France.
In 1704, Gibraltar was captured by combined Dutch and British fleets. It became a British naval stronghold for centuries.
Also in 1704, an English and Dutch army led by John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough defeated the army of Louis XIV of France at the Battle of Blenheim in Bavaria.
From 1706 to 1707, the Treaty of Union joined Scotland with England, creating the Kingdom of Great Britain on May 1, 1707. Scots began to play a much bigger role in the British Empire.
In 1708, Louis XIV asked for peace. The French agreed to the Allied demand that Archduke Karl become King of Spain, but talks broke down when the Allies demanded that Louis send an army to remove his grandson Philip.
On June 12, 1709, Louis XIV said he would agree to the Allied demands about the Spanish succession, but he refused to send an army to remove Philip, calling it an insult to French honor. This made France look good, as many people in France, Britain, and elsewhere thought the demand was outrageous.
A new French commander, Marshal Claude Louis Hector de Villars, was appointed to fight Marlborough and proved to be the war's most skilled French general.
On September 11, 1709, the bloody Battle of Malplaquet took place. Marlborough won against Villars, but it was a Pyrrhic victory, meaning the British lost twice as many soldiers as the French. Public opinion in Britain turned against the war after Malplaquet.
The Tory opposition strongly attacked the Whig government for the war, supporting "Butcher Marlborough," and for widespread corruption in war contracts.
From October 2 to November 16, 1710, a general election resulted in a huge victory for the Tories, who wanted peace.
On April 17, 1711, Holy Roman Emperor Josef I died, and his younger brother, Archduke Karl, was elected as his successor. Queen Anne and her ministers saw no point in continuing the war. Allowing Karl to become King of Spain would create a Habsburg superpower, which would be just as dangerous as a Bourbon superpower.
On October 8, 1711, the British and French governments signed the "London Preliminaries" for a peace treaty.
On January 29, 1712, a peace conference opened in Utrecht.
In May 1712, Queen Anne issued "Restraining Orders" that stopped the British Army from fighting the French unless attacked. Britain effectively pulled out of the war.
On April 11, 1713, the Treaty of Utrecht ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Britain gained land, especially Gibraltar, Acadia, Newfoundland, and the land around Hudson Bay. The lower Great Lakes-Ohio area became a free trade zone. Philip remained on the Spanish throne but was excluded from inheriting the French throne. The Spanish Netherlands became the Austrian Netherlands. Having the strategically important Low Countries under Bourbon control was seen as a threat to Britain.

Hanoverian Rule and Global Conflicts

In 1714, the Elector of Hanover became king of Great Britain as George I, starting the Hanoverian royal family.
From 1714 to 1717, and again from 1731 to 1730, Charles Townshend, 2nd Viscount Townshend largely shaped foreign policy as Secretary of State for the Northern Department. After 1726, Robert Walpole took over.
In 1715, King Louis XIV died in France. The Duke of Orleans, who ruled as regent, pursued a policy of peace and friendship with Britain.
From 1718 to 1720, Britain fought the War of the Quadruple Alliance against Spain.
In 1719, a Spanish invasion supporting the Jacobites failed when storms scattered the Spanish fleet. Spanish troops landed in Scotland but were defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel.
Also in 1719, King George I ordered the Royal Navy to act against Sweden as part of the Great Northern War. Using British power for Hanoverian goals was very unpopular with the public.
In 1721, peace was signed with Sweden.
From 1722 to 1742, Sir Robert Walpole was effectively the Prime Minister. He took charge of foreign policy around 1726, and Britain pursued a policy of peace and not getting involved in European conflicts.
From 1739 to 1742, the War of Jenkins' Ear began with Spain over smuggling and trade. Public opinion demanded this war, against Walpole's wishes, leading to his fall from power. The war was costly and didn't achieve much, hurting legitimate trade. It merged into the War of the Austrian Succession in 1740.
From 1740 to 1748, the War of the Austrian Succession began, merging into the war with Spain. Britain fought against France and Spain, supporting Austria and its new Queen Maria Theresa.
In 1744, a large French invasion attempt on southern England with Charles Edward Stuart was stopped by storms, and France declared war.
On April 16, 1746, the Battle of Culloden in Scotland marked the final victory of the Hanoverians over the Jacobites, who were supported by France.
In 1748, the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) ended the War of Austrian Succession. The war was indecisive, and the "peace" was more like a temporary ceasefire.
In 1754, an undeclared war between France and Britain began in North America, known as the French and Indian War in the United States. Fighting broke out in the Ohio River Valley between French-Indian and British-colonial American forces.
In 1756, the Westminster Convention was signed between Britain and Prussia. This was part of a "Diplomatic Revolution" where Britain dropped its long-time ally Austria in favor of Prussia.
From 1756 to 1763, Britain, Prussia, and Hanover fought against France, Austria, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony in the Seven Years' War. Major battles took place in Europe and North America. The East India Company was also involved in the Third Carnatic War in India. Britain won and took control of all of Canada, making France seek revenge.

American Revolution and Its Aftermath

From 1775 to 1783, the American Revolutionary War saw the Thirteen Colonies revolt. Britain had no major allies.
In 1776, royal governors were expelled from the Thirteen United Colonies. They voted for independence as the United States of America on July 2, and the Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4. France began shipping weapons to the Americans.
In December 1777, France decided to recognize America after a British invasion army from Canada surrendered to the Americans at the Battle of Saratoga in New York. France's goal was revenge for its defeat in 1763.
In 1778, the Treaty of Alliance formed a military alliance between the US and France against Britain. The military and naval strengths of the two sides were now about equal.
Also in 1778, the Carlisle Peace Commission offered the Americans all the terms they wanted in 1775, but not independence. The offer was rejected.
In 1779, Spain entered the war as an ally of France (but not of the US).
In 1780, the Russian Empire declared "armed neutrality," which helped France and the US and hurt the British.
From 1780 to 1781, Russia and Austria proposed peace terms, but the US rejected them.
In 1781, at peace talks in Paris, Congress insisted on independence, saying everything else was negotiable. British policy was to help the US at France's expense.
In 1783, the Treaty of Paris ended the Revolutionary War. Britain gave generous terms to the US, with boundaries set as British North America to the north, the Mississippi River to the west, and Florida to the south. Britain gave East and West Florida to Spain.
In 1784, Britain allowed trade with America but forbade some American food exports to the West Indies. British exports to America reached £3.7 million, while imports were only £750,000.
Also in 1784, Pitt's India Act reorganized the British East India Company to reduce corruption. It centralized British rule by giving more power to the Governor-General.
In 1785, Congress appointed John Adams as minister to the Court of St James's in London.

The Napoleonic Era: 1789–1815

Revolution, War, and Empire

From 1789 to 1815, the French Revolution divided British political opinion. Conservatives were horrified by the killing of the king, the expulsion of nobles, and the Reign of Terror.
Britain was almost constantly at war with France from 1793 until Napoleon's final defeat in 1815. Britain's strategy was to gather and fund a group of allies against France.
William Pitt the Younger was the main leader until his death in 1806. In Britain, conservatives called any radical idea "Jacobin" (referring to the leaders of the Terror), warning that radicalism threatened to overturn British society.
From 1791 to 1792, the British government decided not to get involved in the French Revolution. Reasons included avoiding French attacks on the Austrian Netherlands, not making King Louis XVI's situation worse, and preventing a strong alliance of European countries.
From 1792 to 1799, the French Revolutionary Wars took place.
From 1792 to 1797, the War of the First Coalition saw Prussia and Austria, joined after 1793 by Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples, and Tuscany, fight against the French Republic.
In 1792, Austria and Prussia invaded France. The French defeated them and then went on the offensive, invading the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) in late 1792. This caused serious tension with Britain, as it was British policy to prevent France from controlling the "narrow seas" by keeping them out of the Low Countries.
In India, Britain won against Tipu Sultan in the Third Anglo-Mysore War in 1792, gaining half of Mysore for Britain and its allies.
In 1793, France declared war on Britain.
In 1794, the Jay Treaty with the United States normalized trade. Britain withdrew from forts in the Northwest Territory, leading to a decade of peace with the U.S. France was angered, seeing this as a violation of its 1777 treaty with the U.S.
From 1802 to 1803, the Peace of Amiens brought 13 months of peace with France.
In 1803, the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) against France began.
From 1803 to 1806, the War of the Third Coalition saw Napoleon end the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1803, through an Anglo-Russian agreement, Britain paid a subsidy of £1.5 million for every 100,000 Russian soldiers fighting. Subsidies also went to Austria and other allies.
In 1804, Pitt organized the Third Coalition against Napoleon. It lasted until 1806 and was mostly marked by French victories.
In 1805, the French navy suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar by Nelson, ending any threats of invasion.
From 1806 to 1807, Britain led the War of the Fourth Coalition in alliance with Prussia, Russia, Saxony, and Sweden. Napoleon led France to victory in many major battles, like the Battle of Jena–Auerstedt.
In 1807, Britain made the international slave trade illegal with the Slave Trade Act 1807. The US also made the international slave trade illegal at the same time.
From 1808 to 1814, the Peninsular War against Napoleon's forces in Spain resulted in victory under the Duke of Wellington.
From 1809 to 1815, the Royal Navy defeated the French and seized the Ionian Islands. Britain gained them in 1815 and made them a new colony, the United States of the Ionian Islands. They were given to Greece in 1864.
From 1812 to 1815, the US declared the War of 1812 over national honor, neutral rights at sea, and British support for Native Americans in the west.
In 1813, Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of the Nations. British gains threatened France.
In 1814, France was invaded, Napoleon gave up his power, and the Congress of Vienna began.
Also in 1814, the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816) took place.
In 1815, with the War of 1812 against the U.S. ending in a military draw, the British abandoned their Native American allies. At the Treaty of Ghent, they agreed to return to how things were before the war. This began a lasting peace along the US-Canada border.
Also in 1815, Napoleon returned and was a threat for 100 days. He was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo and sent to a distant island. The Napoleonic Wars ended, marking the start of "Britain's Imperial Century, 1815–1914."
The Second Kandyan War (1815) took place in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka).

Britain's Imperial Century: 1815–1860

Managing Europe and Expanding Influence

From 1814 to 1822, Castlereagh, as foreign minister, worked with the Congress of Vienna to create peace in Europe. His "Congress system" involved major powers meeting regularly to manage European affairs.
During this time, Russia became Britain's main rival, mostly due to tensions over the Eastern Question (the decline of the Ottoman Empire). This rivalry lasted until the early 1900s.
In 1817, the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817–1818) took place in India.
In 1818, the Rush–Bagot Treaty with the United States ended a growing naval competition on the Great Lakes. Both powers agreed to limit the number of warships they would keep there.
From 1822 to 1827, George Canning was in charge of foreign policy. He avoided working closely with European powers and supported the United States' Monroe Doctrine to protect newly independent Latin American states. His goal was to prevent French influence and allow British merchants access to new markets.
From 1821 to 1832, Britain supported Greece in its Greek War of Independence from the Ottoman Empire. The 1832 Treaty of Constantinople was approved at the London Conference of 1832.
In 1824, the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 was signed.
Also in 1824, the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826) took place in Burma.
From 1830 to 1865, Lord Palmerston was a dominant figure in British foreign policy. His goal was to keep Britain powerful by maintaining a balance of power in Europe. He tried to keep autocratic nations like Russia in check and supported liberal governments because they led to more stability.
In 1833, the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 freed slaves in the British Empire. The slave owners, mostly living in Britain, were paid £20 million.
In 1839, the Treaty of London was signed. Britain, Germany, and other powers guaranteed the neutrality of Belgium. Germany violated this in 1914, leading Britain to declare war.
Also in 1839, the Syrian War (1839–40) occurred.
From 1839 to 1842, the First Anglo-Afghan War took place.
In 1840, the Oriental Crisis almost caused a war between Britain and France. Muhammad Ali, the semi-independent Ottoman governor of Egypt, supported by France, tried to take over the Ottoman Empire.
In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking followed a military victory in the First Opium War with China (1839 to 1842). It opened trade, gave territory (like Hong Kong) to Britain, set low Chinese tariffs, granted special rights to foreigners, and included a most favoured nation clause.
In 1845, Britain and France imposed a five-year blockade on the Río de la Plata to stop the Argentine dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas from taking over Uruguay.
Also in 1845, the Oregon boundary dispute threatened war with the United States.
In 1846, the Oregon Treaty ended the dispute with the United States. The border between British North America (Canada) and the United States was set at the 49th parallel.
Also in 1846, the Corn Laws were repealed, allowing free trade in grain.
From 1848 to 1849, the Second Anglo-Sikh War saw the British East India Company conquer the Sikh Empire and take over Punjab.
In 1852, the Second Anglo-Burmese War led to the annexation of British Burma. The rest of Burma was annexed after the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 1885.
From 1853 to 1856, Britain fought the Crimean War with Russia. British policy, with France, was to protect the weakening Ottoman Empire from Russian advances. The war was fought mostly in Crimea and was poorly managed by both sides. British naval success forced Russia to seek peace, which demilitarized the Black Sea and ensured British control of the eastern Mediterranean.
In 1856, the Second Opium War with China began.
In 1857, the Indian Mutiny was put down.
In 1858, the government of India was transferred to the British Crown, and a viceroy was appointed.
Also in 1858, the Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce was signed.
In 1860, the Treaty of Tientsin and Convention of Peking ended the war with China, leading to deeper British commercial involvement in China.

Global Power and New Challenges: 1860–1896

Unification, Civil War, and Imperial Expansion

From 1860 to 1870, the British government morally and diplomatically supported the "Risorgimento" (the Unification of Italy and creation of the modern Italian state) despite much international opposition. The famous hero of unification, Giuseppe Garibaldi, was widely celebrated in Britain.
In 1861, Britain, Spain, and France sent forces to Mexico to demand repayment of debts. Britain and Spain withdrew, but France escalated and took control of Mexico.
From 1861 to 1865, Britain remained neutral in the American Civil War, although Prime Minister Palmerston favored the Confederacy and was tempted to recognize it, which would have led to war with US.
In 1861, a war scare over the Trent Affair was resolved when the US released Confederate diplomats seized from a British ship.
In 1864, Britain avoided involvement in the war between Denmark and Prussia and Austria over the Schleswig-Holstein question.
In 1865, the Anglo-Moroccan Accords helped keep Morocco independent during the "Scramble for Africa" but reduced the sultanate's customs and royal trade monopolies.
In 1867, the British North America Act, 1867 created Canada, a federation with its own self-government. Foreign and defense matters were handled by London. The long-term goal was for Canada to pay for its own defense.
From 1868 to 1881, Gladstone developed a moralistic policy regarding Afghanistan.
In 1871, Russia took advantage of France's troubles and canceled the 1856 Treaty of Paris, remilitarizing the Black Sea. This was approved at the London Convention of 1871, reviving rivalry with Russia in the Near East.
Also in 1871, the Treaty of Washington with the United States set up arbitration that settled the Alabama Claims in 1872 in the US's favor.
The unification of Germany in 1871, after its defeat of France, led the British government to expand the Army and put Edward Cardwell in charge of modernizing the forces.
In 1873, the Imperial College of Engineering opened in Tokyo with Henry Dyer as principal. Japan studied and copied British technology and business methods.
From 1874 to 1880, the Conservative government of Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli achieved several successes. In 1875, Britain bought controlling shares in the Suez Canal company. Through negotiations, Russia gave up significant gains in the Balkans and a foothold in the Mediterranean. Britain gained control of Cyprus from the Ottomans as a naval base covering the Eastern Mediterranean. In exchange, Britain guaranteed the Ottoman Empire's territories in Asia. Britain did not do well in conflicts in Afghanistan and South Africa.
From 1875 to 1900, Britain joined the Scramble for Africa, gaining large areas in East, South, and West Africa, and keeping "temporary" control of Egypt.
From 1875 to 1898, tensions with France were high over African colonies. At the Fashoda Incident in 1898, fighting was possible, but France backed down, and tensions ended.
In 1875, the British government bought the Suez Canal shares from the nearly bankrupt khedive of Egypt, Isma'il Pasha. French investors still owned most of the shares.
From 1875 to 1878, Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli worked during the Near East crisis to reduce rival Russian interests in the Ottoman Empire. He achieved his goals at the Congress of Berlin (1878) but did not find a lasting solution to the Eastern Question in the Balkans.
In 1876, the Bulgarian Horrors caused outrage in Britain. Gladstone went on a nationwide speaking tour attacking Disraeli's government for supporting the Turks.
From 1877 to 1878, the Russian-Turkish War ended in a Russian victory. The Treaty of San Stefano was widely seen as an unacceptable increase in Russian power in the Balkans.
In 1878, widespread "jingoism" (extreme patriotism) celebrated sending a British fleet into Turkish waters to counter Russia's advance.
Also in 1878, the Treaty of Berlin gave Britain possession of Cyprus. Britain leased Cyprus from Turkey to block possible Russian expansion. In 1914, Britain annexed Cyprus and made it a crown colony in 1927. Disraeli boasted that he secured "Peace with honor" as well as Cyprus.
In 1879, Egypt went bankrupt. It lost financial independence to a group of European bankers. Evelyn Baring was sent to reorganize the Egyptian government so Egypt could pay off its debts.
Also in 1879, the Anglo-Zulu War took place. British policy in South Africa aimed at complete control of the country to maintain control over the alternative Cape route to India, in case the Suez Canal was unavailable.
In 1880, foreign policy was a major issue in the British general election, helping Liberals under Gladstone defeat Disraeli's Conservative Party in a landslide.
From 1880 to 1881, the First Boer War saw Britain defeated by the South African Republic (Afrikaners).
In the 1880s, Gladstone called for a "Concert of Europe"—a peaceful European order that would overcome traditional rivalries by emphasizing cooperation over conflict. However, he was outmaneuvered by Bismarck's "realpolitik," which used manipulated alliances and rivalries.
In 1881, the Pretoria Convention ended the war with the Transvaal and Orange Free State. From then on, the Boer republics were independent, with a vague British claim of suzerainty (limited control). This caused much future tension, as the Boer republics saw themselves as fully independent states, while Britain did not.
In 1882, an uprising in Egypt led by Ahmed Orabi against foreign control of the government occurred. The British took control of Egypt after a war (the Anglo-Egyptian War) although it remained officially part of the Ottoman Empire.
In 1883, the United Kingdom–Korea Treaty of 1883 was signed.
From 1883 to 1907, Lord Cromer ruled Egypt as consul general.
In 1885, the Panjdeh incident caused a war scare with Russia.
From 1885 to 1902, historians agree that Lord Salisbury, as foreign minister and prime minister, was a strong and effective leader in foreign affairs. He had a superb understanding of the issues and was a patient, practical leader. He oversaw the division of Africa, the rise of Germany and the United States as imperial powers, and the shift of British attention from the Dardanelles to Suez without causing a major conflict among the great powers.
In 1886, the Witwatersrand Gold Rush occurred. Gold was discovered in the Transvaal. The new wealth of the South African Republic threatened to change the assumptions behind the Pretoria convention. It was thought that the two Boer republics were too small and weak to threaten British rule over the Cape Colony and Natal, and thus British control over the Cape route to India. Now, with gold being mined, the South African Republic used its new wealth to buy many weapons in Europe, which could potentially threaten Britain's position in South Africa. This led to a renewed British push to bring all of southern Africa under its control.
In 1887, to protect the Suez Canal and the sea lanes to India and Asia, Prime Minister Salisbury signed the Mediterranean Agreements (March and December 1887) with Italy and Austria. This indirectly aligned Britain with Germany and the Triple Alliance.
In 1889, Salisbury increased the Royal Navy's dominance through the Naval Defence Act 1889, adding £20 million for ten new battleships, thirty-eight new cruisers, eighteen new torpedo boats, and four new fast gunboats.
From 1890 to 1896, Britain faced several diplomatic setbacks, including abandoning the Congo treaty with Belgium, the French conquest of Madagascar, the cooperation of France, Russia, and Germany in the Far East, the Venezuela crisis with the United States, the Armenian massacres in the Ottoman Empire, the growing alliance between France and Russia, and the disaster of the Jameson Raid. Debates focused on Britain's lack of allies.
From 1890 to 1902, Salisbury promoted a policy of Splendid isolation, meaning Britain had no formal allies.
In 1890, the South African Republic passed a law that took away voting rights from most of the uitlanders, who were foreign, mostly British, workers in the Transvaal's gold fields. The uitlander issue became a major source of tension in the following decade.
Also in 1890, the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty was signed with Germany. Britain gained the German colony of Zanzibar while giving up a small strategic island off the German coast and agreed on boundaries in Africa.

A cartoon from 1895 shows President Cleveland twisting the tail of the British Lion over Venezuela.

In 1895, the Venezuela Crisis occurred. A border dispute with Venezuela caused a major Anglo-American crisis when the United States intervened on Venezuela's side. It was resolved through arbitration and was the last crisis that threatened war with the United States.
From 1894 to 1896, Britain put pressure on Turkey to stop its mistreatment of Christians. A series of escalating atrocities against Armenians in Turkey caused public outrage in Britain. All efforts to coordinate actions with other powers failed, and the Armenians received no help.
From 1895 to 1896, the Jameson Raid was a failed attempt at a coup to overthrow President Paul Kruger of the South African Republic, started by Cecil Rhodes. This strengthened Afrikaner nationalism and embarrassed Britain.
In January 1896, Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm increased tensions with his Kruger telegram, congratulating President Kruger of the Transvaal for defeating the Jameson raid. German officials in Berlin had stopped the Kaiser from proposing a German protectorate over the Transvaal. The telegram backfired, as the British began to see Germany as a major threat and moved towards friendlier relationships with France.

The battleship HMS Royal Sovereign in 1896.

The World Wars and Beyond: 1897–1945

Naval Races and New Alliances

In 1897, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz was appointed German Naval Secretary of State. This marked the beginning of Germany transforming its navy from a small coastal defense force into a fleet meant to challenge British naval power. Tirpitz called for a Riskflotte (Risk Fleet) that would make it too risky for Britain to fight Germany, as part of a larger plan to change the international balance of power in Germany's favor.
Also in 1897, German Foreign Secretary Bernhard von Bülow called for Weltpolitik (World politics). This new German policy aimed to assert its claim as a global, not just European, power. Germany abandoned its previous conservative policy and became a revisionist power, intending to challenge and disrupt the international order. This ultimately prevented Britain and Germany from becoming friends or forming an alliance.
In 1898, the First Navy Law was passed in Germany, committing the country to building up its fleet to achieve Tirpitz's vision.
Also in 1898, the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory was signed with China.
Anglo-Egyptian control over Sudan was established in 1898.
The Fashoda Incident in 1898 threatened war with France over control of the upper Nile River. The French backed down. Britain's long-term goal was to link South Africa to Egypt with the Cape to Cairo Railway. This railway would help with governance, military movement, settlement, and trade. Most of it was eventually built, but there were gaps.
In 1898, during the Spanish–American War, Britain remained neutral but was pro-American. Anglo-American relations began to improve significantly at the end of the 19th century.
In 1899, Britain supported the "Open Door Policy," allowing all countries access to Chinese markets.
Also in 1899, the Bloemfontein Conference took place between Alfred Milner, the British High Commissioner for South Africa, and President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal. The main issues were the status of the uitlanders (foreign, mostly British, workers in the Transvaal's gold fields) and the English language, along with Milner's demand that the Transvaal's independence be greatly reduced. The conference failed.
Colonial Secretary Joseph Chamberlain's offer of an alliance with Germany was refused by Berlin in 1899.
The Second Boer War began in 1899 when the Transvaal (South African Republic) declared war on Britain.
The first Hague Conference in 1899 was a major effort to set rules for international peace. It created ways to resolve international disputes and established a Permanent Court of Arbitration. However, it did little to slow the arms race in Europe.
In 1900, British forces joined an international rescue mission in Peking, China, and suppressed the anti-Western Boxer Rebellion.
Also in 1900, the Second Navy Law was passed in Germany, calling for a huge increase in the size of the German Navy.
In 1901, the Hay–Pauncefote Treaty with the US canceled an earlier treaty from 1850. It allowed the U.S. to build the Panama Canal and guaranteed open passage for any nation. The Panama Canal opened in 1914.
In 1902, the lenient Treaty of Vereeniging ended the Boer War in a British victory. The Transvaal and Orange Free State were annexed and became part of the Union of South Africa in 1910. Boer leaders, especially Jan Smuts, were accepted as British leaders.

A 1904 French postcard showing Britannia and Marianne happily dancing together, celebrating the new spirit of cooperation in the "Entente Cordiale."

Reports from Captain Watson, a naval attaché in Germany, indicated in 1902 that the German naval build-up, which began in 1898, was meant to challenge British sea power. This marked the beginning of the Anglo-German naval race.
Also in 1902, the Anglo-Japanese Alliance was signed. It was renewed and expanded in 1905 but not renewed in 1923.
In 1903, King Edward VII, new to the throne but familiar with France, made a very successful visit to Paris, turning hostility into friendship.
Also in 1903, the Younghusband expedition to Tibet occurred. Britain invaded Tibet to counter supposed Russian influence at the Dalai Lama's court that seemed to threaten India.
In 1904, the Russo-Japanese War began. Britain supported Japan, while France and Germany supported Russia. Britain shared intelligence with Japan against Russia. Due to shared intelligence with Japan, British decision-makers increasingly concluded that Germany was supporting Russia to disrupt the balance of power in Europe.
On April 8, 1904, three agreements with France (the "Entente cordiale") ended many points of conflict. France recognized British control over Egypt, while Britain did the same for France in Morocco. France gave up exclusive fishing rights off Newfoundland and received compensation and territory in Gambia (Senegal) and Nigeria. Britain dropped complaints about French customs in Madagascar. Spheres of influence were defined in Siam (Thailand). Issues regarding New Hebrides were settled in 1906. This meant that with France recognizing its rights in Egypt, Britain could significantly extend its control. The Entente was negotiated by the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, and the British foreign secretary, Lord Lansdowne.
In 1904, a convention with Tibet allowed a British trade mission to be established, aiming to bring Tibet into the British sphere of influence.
The Dogger Bank incident occurred in 1904. The Russian Baltic fleet, on its way to Korea to fight Japan, accidentally fired on British fishing trawlers. Britain and Russia almost went to war. The crisis ended when Russia apologized and paid compensation.
In 1905, the First Moroccan Crisis occurred. Germany threatened war with France to try and break the entente cordiale. Britain made it clear that if Germany attacked France, Britain would intervene on France's side.
Also in 1905, the Persian Constitutional Revolution caused tension with Russia. Britain supported Persian liberals, while Russia supported the Shah.
In 1906, the Algeciras Conference ended the Moroccan Crisis in a diplomatic defeat for Germany, as France took the leading role in North Africa. The crisis brought London and Paris much closer and created the expectation that they would be allies if Germany attacked either one.
In 1906, Britain responded to Germany's accelerated naval arms race with major innovations, especially those developed by Lord Fisher. The launch of HMS Dreadnought made all other battleships technically old-fashioned and showed Britain's success in keeping both a qualitative and quantitative lead in the naval race with Germany.
Also in 1906, the Third Navy Law was passed in Germany. Germany planned to build its own "all big gun" ships to keep up with Britain in the naval race.

The Triple Entente, formed in 1907 (in grey), stood against the Triple Alliance of 1882–1914 (shown in red).

In 1907, the Anglo-Russian Entente was achieved, settling outstanding disputes between Britain and Russia. It ended "The Great Game" regarding control of Tibet, Persia, and Afghanistan.
Also in 1907, the Triple Entente was formed with France and Russia, standing against the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria, and Italy.
In 1908, the Fourth Navy Law was passed in Germany. The British public responded with calls for more warship construction under the slogan "We want eight and won't wait" when it seemed Germany was winning the naval race.
In 1911, reports from Captain Watson, a naval attaché in Germany, indicated the growing power and efficiency of German warships, heavy guns, and sailors.
Also in 1911, the Agadir Crisis occurred. France forced its way into taking more control over Morocco. The German Foreign Minister Alfred von Kiderlen-Waechter was not against these moves, but he felt Germany deserved some compensation elsewhere in Africa. He sent a small warship, made threatening statements, and stirred up anger among German nationalists. France and Germany soon agreed on a compromise. However, the British cabinet was alarmed by Germany's aggressive behavior toward France. David Lloyd George gave a dramatic "Mansion House" speech that denounced the German move as an intolerable humiliation. There was talk of war, and Germany backed down. Relations with Berlin remained bad.
Also in 1911, a reciprocity treaty lowering tariffs between Canada and the US failed due to a surge of pro-British, anti-American feelings led by the Conservative Party.
In 1912, the Fifth Navy Law was passed in Germany, expanding the German fleet as a threat to the Royal Navy's control of the seas.
Also in 1912, the Haldane Mission to Germany took place. Richard Haldane visited Berlin to meet with high officials to try and end the naval race with Germany. Haldane's offer of a "naval holiday" (stopping warship building) failed when the Germans tried to link it with a British promise to remain neutral if Germany attacked France. Admiral Tirpitz ordered further naval construction.

World War I and Its Aftermath

In 1914, the July Crisis was triggered when Austria-Hungary sent an ultimatum to Serbia with terms designed to be rejected. Foreign Secretary Edward Grey tried hard to maintain peace and mediate a compromise, but failed.
On August 4, 1914, the king, on behalf of Britain and its Empire, declared war on Germany and Austria after Germany violated Belgium's neutrality.
In 1914, a stalemate developed on the Western Front, but Britain and its dominions seized the overseas German colonies.
In 1915, the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania was torpedoed without warning by a German submarine and sank in 18 minutes, killing 1,200 people. Germany violated international law by not allowing passengers to escape.
Also in 1915, the Treaty of London brought Italy into the war on the Allied side. Italy was secretly promised major gains at Austria-Hungary's expense.
In 1916, the Sykes–Picot Agreement was signed. Britain and France decided on areas of influence if the Ottoman Empire were to collapse.
On April 7, 1917, the US declared war on Germany and Austria. It did not officially join the Allies but remained an independent force, sending a token army in 1917. A major factor in bringing the United States into the war was the Zimmermann Telegram, a German proposal for anti-American alliances with Mexico and Japan that was intercepted, decoded, and leaked by the British.
In 1917, the Balfour Declaration was issued, giving British support for a Jewish "national home" in Palestine.
In 1918, Britain accepted the Fourteen Points, the American statement of war aims.
Also in 1918, British intervention in the Russian Civil War began. After World War I, Britain became the biggest supporter of the Russian White forces.
In November 1918, Britain and the Allies defeated Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey. Their empires (along with the Russian Empire) dissolved.
In 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed. Prime Minister David Lloyd George was a key negotiator. In the Khaki Election of 1918, coming days after the Allied victory, Lloyd George promised to impose a harsh treaty on Germany. At the Versailles Conference, however, he took a more moderate approach. France and Italy demanded and achieved harsh terms, including Germany admitting guilt for starting the war (which humiliated Germany) and a demand that Germany pay all Allied war costs, including veterans' benefits and interest.
Also in 1919, the League of Nations was formed, with Britain an active member, along with its Dominions and India.

The British Empire in 1921.

Between the Wars and World War II: 1920–1945

Post-War Adjustments and Rising Tensions

In 1919, the Greco-Turkish War began. Britain was Greece's main supporter, but Greece did not do well.
Also in 1919, War Secretary Winston Churchill introduced the Ten Year Rule, which stated that military spending should assume no major war for the next ten years. This led to a huge drop in military spending.
In 1920, Leonid Krasin visited London to meet Lloyd George. This was the first official contact between Soviet Russia and Britain.
In 1921, the Anglo-Soviet Trade Agreement was signed, the first treaty between Britain and Soviet Russia.
Also in 1921, the Franklin-Bouillon Agreement was signed. France supported Turkey in the Greco-Turkish War, while Britain continued to support Greece.
In 1922, the Washington Naval Conference resulted in the Four-Power Treaty, Five-Power Treaty, and Nine-Power Treaty. These led to major naval disarmament for 10 years, with sharp reductions in all major navies. Britain gave up its claim to have a navy "second to none" and recognized the United States Navy as equal. The costs of naval races with the U.S. and Japan were too expensive for a British economy weakened by World War I. The relative naval strengths of the major powers were set: GB = 5, US = 5, Japan = 3, France = 1.75, Italy = 1.75. Britain did not build up to its allowed maximum. The powers would follow the treaty for ten years, then begin a naval arms race.
Also in 1922, the League of Nations gave Britain a mandate to control Palestine, which it had conquered from the Ottoman Empire in 1917. The mandate lasted until 1948.
The Genoa conference in 1922 saw Britain openly clash with France over the amount of reparations to be collected from Germany.
The alliance with Japan ended in 1922. Canada and Australia disliked the treaty, as did the U.S.
The Chanak Crisis in 1922 almost led Britain to war with Turkey. Some of the Dominions refused to promise to fight if Britain did, which was a major shock in London. Lloyd George's intention to go to war with Turkey led to the downfall of his government.
In 1923, the British government renegotiated its £978 million war debt to the US Treasury, promising regular payments. The idea was for the US to loan money to Germany, which would then pay reparations to Britain, which in turn would pay off its loans from the US government. In 1931, all German payments ended, and in 1932, Britain suspended its payments to the US. All World War I debts were finally repaid after 1945.
France occupied the Ruhr in 1923 after Germany defaulted on reparations. Britain wanted Germany's economy to recover so it could make reparations and increase trade. France rejected Britain's argument and, along with Belgium, occupied the Ruhr from 1922–25. British policy was uncertain until it invited the Americans to solve the problem, which was done with the Dawes Plan.
The Treaty of Lausanne with Turkey in 1923 forced Britain to make major concessions to the Turks compared to the earlier Treaty of Sèvres of 1920.
In 1924, a London conference between Labour Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and French Premier Édouard Herriot took place. Britain forced France to reduce the amount of reparations collected from Germany.
Also in 1924, the Geneva Protocol was a proposal to the League of Nations presented by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and his French counterpart Édouard Herriot. It set up mandatory arbitration of disputes and a method to identify aggressors in international conflicts. All legal disputes would go to the World Court. It called for a disarmament conference in 1925. Any government refusing to comply would be named an aggressor, and any victim of aggression would receive immediate help from League members. MacDonald lost power, and the new Conservative government rejected the proposal, fearing it would lead to conflict with the United States. Washington also opposed it, as did all the British dominions. The proposal was shelved in 1925 and never took effect.
The Labour government established diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia in 1924.
In 1925, the Locarno Treaties normalized Germany's status, though the Versailles Treaty provisions still applied. This began a decade of British efforts to stabilize a new European situation, hoping that stability and trade would prevent another war.
A dispute with Turkey over Mosul ended in 1926. Turkey dropped its claim to the Mosul region of Iraq.
In 1927, British police raided the ARCOS office in London. Relations with the Soviet Union were broken off after a Soviet spy ring operating from the ARCOS building was discovered.
In 1929, MacDonald's Labour government restored relations with the Soviet Union.
Also in 1929, MacDonald visited the United States, the first visit to the US by a sitting British Prime Minister.
From 1929 to 1931, Labour Foreign Minister Arthur Henderson strongly supported the League of Nations.
In 1931, the Statute of Westminster recognized the full independence of the Dominions.
In 1932, British policy in the Far East faced a crisis when the Japanese attacked Shanghai. Six percent of all British foreign investment was in China, and two-thirds of that was in Shanghai. As a result, the Ten Year Rule was dropped. The Cabinet authorized a modest increase in the Royal Navy budget, assuming there might be a war with Japan within the next decade, though the Great Depression limited spending. This marked the beginning of British rearmament.
Also in 1932, Britain suspended its World War I debt payments to the United States.
In 1934, a secret report by the Defence Requirements Committee identified Germany as the "ultimate potential enemy." It called for a large expeditionary force, but budget limits prevented its formation.
Also in 1934, the "air panic" of 1934–35 began, with exaggerated claims of German air strength in the British press. The Royal Air Force became the main beneficiary of rearmament.

Appeasement and World War II

In 1935, the Peace Ballot was held, with 11.5 million votes cast. The strong "yes" vote was unclear, and the campaign was biased. Political leaders ignored it as wishful thinking rather than a serious foreign policy statement.
Also in 1935, the Stresa Front was formed after a summit between Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald, French Premier Pierre Laval, and Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. It vaguely aimed to oppose any challenge to the Treaty of Versailles by force. Mussolini mistakenly felt that Britain had no interest in Ethiopia.
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement was signed in London in 1935. It was meant to avoid a repeat of the pre-1914 Anglo-German naval race.
Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935, starting a crisis in Anglo-Italian relations as Britain made half-hearted attempts to uphold collective security. Mussolini threatened war against Britain.
The Election of 1935 took place. The government of Stanley Baldwin was returned to power with a promise to uphold collective security.
The Hoare–Laval Pact with France in 1935 proposed to appease Italy and avoid League sanctions against Italy for invading Ethiopia. The proposal was approved by the cabinet, but public reaction was very negative, and Foreign Minister Samuel Hoare was forced to resign, replaced by Anthony Eden.
In 1936, Germany remilitarized the German Rhineland, explicitly violating the Versailles and Locarno treaties, which said the area had to remain without soldiers. The Baldwin government protested but valued peace highly and did not act. France had enough military power to expel Germany from the Rhineland but chose to follow Britain and do nothing. France lacked confidence in its military and feared another costly war.
From 1936 to 1939, British opinion was deeply divided on the Spanish Civil War. The government tended to favor the right-wing Nationalists, while intellectuals and unions favored the Republic because it was anti-Fascist. Communists led protest efforts, and 2500 British and Irish volunteers went to Spain to fight for the Republic; 500 were killed. The government joined major powers in declaring neutrality and opposed arms shipments to either side, fearing the war might spread. Nevertheless, Germany and Italy supplied the Nationalists, and the USSR supplied the Republicans. The Nationalists under Francisco Franco won completely in 1939.
In 1937, Japanese planes attacked British gunboats in the Yangtze River and machine-gunned the car of the British Ambassador to China, Sir Hughe Knatchbull-Hugessen, who was badly injured. As these attacks happened at the same time as the sinking of USS Panay, Britain suggested an Anglo-American blockade of Japan as a response. American President Franklin Roosevelt refused the British offer and instead accepted Japan's apology, though he did allow secret Anglo-American naval talks to begin in early 1938.
In 1938, the Mexican oil expropriation occurred. The government of Lázaro Cárdenas nationalized land owned by British oil companies in Mexico.
Also in 1938, the Anglo-Italian Easter Accords were signed. Britain tried to restore relations with Italy.
Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden used secret intelligence reports in 1938 to conclude Italy was an enemy. He resigned in protest over Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain's move closer to Italy to block Germany.
In 1938, Hitler threatened war over the alleged mistreatment of ethnic Germans in the Sudetenland, a part of Czechoslovakia. Britain and France made intense efforts to avoid war by making concessions to Germany. Czechoslovakia was not consulted.
Britain and France signed the Munich Agreement with Nazi Germany in 1938. Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain promised it meant "peace in our time." Historians disagree sharply; some argue the appeasement was cowardly; others argue it saved Britain, which was not ready for war with Germany.
On March 15, 1939, the appeasement policy ended as Germany seized all of Czechoslovakia.
On March 31, 1939, Prime Minister Chamberlain issued a "guarantee" of Polish independence in the House of Commons, in cooperation with France. They would go to war if Polish independence was threatened.
The Tientsin Incident in 1939 almost led to war between Britain and Japan when Japan blockaded the British concession in Tianjin, China.
Britain signed a defense treaty with Poland in 1939, guaranteeing its boundaries against German threats.
On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland. Britain and France declared war on September 3.
From 1939 to 1940, the "Phoney War" saw little action on the Western Front.
In 1940, the British army was trapped and narrowly escaped at Dunkirk.
In September 1940, Britain traded bases on its colonies in the Western Hemisphere for destroyers from the United States. The destroyers were used to defend convoys. The colonies were used as bargaining chips to secure American friendship and minimize growing American influence.
In January 1941, Britain informed the United States that unless aid was offered, Britain would be bankrupt later that year.
In 1941, the United States began Lend-Lease to support the Allied war effort. $31.4 billion was given to Britain and $11.3 billion to the Soviet Union. Canada, in separate programs, gave $4.7 billion. Unlike American aid in 1917–18, Lend-Lease was not a loan and did not have to be repaid.
On June 22, 1941, Germany launched Operation Barbarossa, invading the USSR, which became one of the Allies of World War II fighting against the Axis powers.
In 1941, Prime Minister Churchill agreed on the Atlantic Charter with President Roosevelt.
The Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran in 1941 occupied a neutral country on the pretext that Iran did not expel German advisors.
From 1941 to 1945, the Arctic convoys transported supplies Britain gave without charge to the USSR during the war.
In 1941, Japan attacked the United States, Britain, and the Netherlands. The Japanese seized Hong Kong, Brunei, Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, Singapore, and Burma, and treated prisoners of war very badly.
In 1942, Britain and the USSR agreed that after victory, Poland's boundaries would be moved westward. The USSR would take lands in the east, while Poland would gain lands in the west that had been under German control. They agreed on the "Curzon Line" as the boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union, and the Oder-Neisse line would become the new boundary between Germany and Poland. The proposed changes angered the Polish government in exile in London, which was not consulted.
A. J. P. Taylor stated in 1943, "1943 was the year when world leadership moved from Great Britain to the United States."
The Casablanca Conference in Morocco, from January 14–23, 1943, brought together Churchill, Roosevelt, and Charles de Gaulle. The Allies announced a policy of "unconditional surrender" from the Axis powers.
In August 1943, the Quebec Conference ("Quadrant") took place. Combined Chiefs (US and UK) agreed on 29 divisions to land in France in Operation Overlord in May 1944. Plans also discussed landings in southern France, operations in Burma, China, and the Pacific, and sharing the atomic bomb project.
An agreement was signed in 1943 ending all British extraterritorial rights in China.
In 1944, Argentina refused to go along with American anti-German policies. Washington responded by trying to shut down Argentine exports. In 1944, President Franklin Roosevelt asked Prime Minister Winston Churchill to stop buying Argentine beef and grain. Churchill refused, saying the food was urgently needed.
In September 1944, Churchill and Roosevelt and the Combined Chiefs met in the Second Quebec Conference ("Octagon"). They discussed Pacific strategy and agreed (later revoked) on the Morgenthau Plan to demilitarize Germany.
In October 1944, Churchill and Foreign Minister Eden met in Moscow with Stalin and his foreign minister Vyacheslav Molotov. They planned who would control what in postwar Eastern Europe. They agreed to give 90% of the influence in Greece to Britain and 90% in Romania to Russia. Russia gained an 80%/20% division in Bulgaria and Hungary. There was a 50/50 division in Yugoslavia, and no Russian share in Italy.
In December 1944, the Battle of Athens took place. British troops battled the Communist ELAS forces for control of Athens.

The Cold War and Beyond: 1945–1989

Post-War Challenges and Decolonization

From 1944 to 1947, the Jewish insurgency in Palestine saw Jews confront Arabs and the British in their quest for an independent Israel in Palestine, which Britain controlled under a League of Nations mandate.
World War II ended in 1945 with victory over Germany and Japan. Britain was financially exhausted as Lend Lease aid from the US suddenly ended in August. An "Age of Austerity" and cutbacks began.
From 1945 to 1946, Parliament approved a $3.75 billion low-interest loan from the US Treasury in 1946, plus $1.2 billion from Canada.
From 1945 to 1957, despite tight budgets, Britain used cultural diplomacy in the Middle East. The British Council, the BBC, and official overseas information services promoted pro-democracy organizations, educational exchanges, magazines, book distribution, and films to boost British prestige and promote democracy.
In 1946, the UKUSA Agreement was signed, continuing wartime intelligence cooperation between the United States and the United Kingdom.
In 1947, the government secretly decided to build an atomic bomb.
Also in 1947, the government informed the United States that Britain could not afford to support the Greek government in its Greek Civil War against Communist guerrillas.
From 1947 to 1948, Britain withdrew from the Palestine Mandate, which it had held since 1920, and turned the issue over to the U.N. Financial exhaustion was a main reason, but also strategic concerns, as its involvement was alienating Arab nations whose goodwill was desired.
From 1948 to 1949, the Berlin Blockade threatened Britain's status in West Berlin. The RAF played a major role in the Berlin Airlift, and the Soviets finally gave in.
From 1948 to 1960, the Malayan Emergency was a civil war against the Communist-led Malayan National Liberation Army (MNLA). Britain was eventually victorious.
In 1949, Britain became a founding member of NATO.
Also in 1949, the Amethyst incident occurred. The frigate HMS Amethyst was fired upon by Chinese Communists on the Yangtze River.
In January 1950, Britain recognized China, despite American objections.
From 1950 to 1953, Britain fought under the UN flag in the Korean War against Communist forces from North Korea and China.
In 1951, Britain strongly opposed the use of nuclear weapons in Korea, as discussed by the US.
Also in 1951, Egypt renounced the 1936 treaty. Egyptians began guerrilla attacks against the British Suez Canal base, leading to low-level warfare between British forces and Egyptians for several years.
The Abadan Crisis occurred in 1951. The government of Mohammad Mosaddegh in Iran nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company.
In 1952, in response to Egyptian attacks, British forces stormed and took a police station in Ismaïlia. The Ismaïlia incident sparked anti-British rioting all over Egypt.
In 1953, American and British intelligence agencies supported a coup in Iran.
In 1954, Prime Minister Churchill refused a French request to intervene in Vietnam.
Also in 1954, a treaty was signed with Egypt ending the British Suez Canal base.
In 1955, the Geneva summit was attended by Prime Minister Anthony Eden. This was the last time a British Prime Minister attended a summit of the superpowers.
From 1955 to 1963, Yemen became a trouble spot in an oil-rich region where the Soviets supported a revolt. Civil war erupted in 1962 as Britain tried to protect its colony in Aden.
In 1955, the Baghdad Pact was signed. This alliance aimed to maintain British influence in the Near East.
In 1956, during the Suez Crisis, Egypt nationalized the Suez Canal, a vital waterway for most of Europe's oil from the Middle East. Britain and France, allied with Israel, invaded to seize the canal and overthrow President Nasser. The United States strongly objected, using heavy diplomatic and financial pressure to force the invaders to withdraw. British policy had four goals: control the Suez Canal, ensure oil flow, remove Nasser, and keep the Soviets out of the Middle East. It failed on all four.
From 1958 to 1960, as the anti-nuclear movement grew, Britain, the US, and the USSR suspended nuclear tests and held test ban talks in Geneva. However, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan decided not to criticize French nuclear tests in 1960. His goals were to gain French support for Britain joining the European Economic Community and French backing for a four-power summit to promote détente (easing of strained relations).
In 1958, the Anglo-American nuclear treaty established a basis for cooperation on nuclear weapons development.
Also in 1958, Britain sent troops to Jordan to restore order following riots against the pro-British King Hussein.
From 1959 to 1960, the Zürich and London Agreement between Britain, Greece, and Turkey granted independence to Cyprus.
In 1960, Prime Minister Harold Macmillan gave his "wind of change" speech in South Africa. It signaled an intention to soon grant independence to the remaining colonies in Asia, the Caribbean, and Africa.
In 1961, Britain sent troops to Kuwait following threats by Iraqi leader Abd al-Karim Qasim to invade Kuwait. Iraq was deterred from invading.
From 1962 to 1966, the Indonesian confrontation saw Britain fight an undeclared war against Indonesia in defense of Malaysia.
In 1968, Britain announced the withdrawal of military forces "East of Suez".
In 1971, reversing the "east of Suez" withdrawal, Britain signed the Five Power Defence Arrangements with Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, and Singapore. This alliance aimed to protect Singapore and Malaysia from Indonesia.
In 1972, Ugandan dictator Idi Amin expelled the "Asians," Ugandans of South Asian background, most of whom held British passports and came to Britain.
In 1973, Britain joined the European Community after France blocked its first application in 1961.
In 1974, Turkey invaded Cyprus. Britain was obligated to defend Cyprus under the 1960 treaty but chose not to.
In 1976, Britain needed a bail-out by the IMF to avoid defaulting on debts.
In 1979, Britain strongly protested the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
In 1980, Death of a Princess aired in Britain. Saudi Arabia broke relations with Britain over the film, claiming it was insulting to the House of Saud. Relations were restored later that year.
In 1982, Britain achieved victory in the War with Argentina over the Falkland Islands.
In 1984, the Murder of Yvonne Fletcher occurred. A British policewoman was killed by a Libyan diplomat. Britain broke relations with Libya.
Also in 1984, Thatcher won a rebate from the European Union.
In 1984, Britain signed a treaty with China to return Hong Kong in 1997.
In 1986, the Hindawi affair led Britain to break diplomatic relations with Syria after it was found that Syria was involved in an attempt to bomb an El Air flight out of London.
In 1989, Ruhollah Khomeini issued a fatwa (religious decree) sentencing British author Salman Rushdie to death. Britain broke diplomatic relations with Iran.

Modern British Foreign Policy: Since 1990

New Global Landscape

In 1989, Communist control collapsed in Eastern Europe.
In 1990, Thatcher sent troops to the Middle East following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
Also in 1990, the Two plus four treaty restored full sovereignty to Germany and ended British occupation rights that had existed since 1945.
In 1991, Britain fought in the Gulf War against Iraq.
Also in 1991, the Cold War ended as Communism in the USSR ended, and the USSR broke up.
In 1992, Black Wednesday saw Britain forced out of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.
In 1994, relations were restored with Iran.
From 1997 to 2007, Prime Minister Tony Blair based his foreign policy on two traditional principles (close ties with the US and EU) and a new active philosophy of 'interventionism'.
In 2001, Britain joined the war on terror.
From 2001 to 2014, British combat forces were with NATO in Afghanistan. A few hundred troops remained for training until 2016.
In 2016, the P5+1 and EU implemented a deal with Iran aimed at preventing the country from gaining access to nuclear weapons.
Also in 2016, the United Kingdom voted for "Brexit" to leave the European Union.
In 2016, David Cameron resigned as Prime Minister after his defeat in the Brexit referendum. He was succeeded by Conservative Theresa May.
In 2019, Britain seized an Iranian oil tanker in Gibraltar. In retaliation, Iran seized two British oil tankers.
In 2020, the United Kingdom left the European Union after 47 years of membership.
In 2021, the United Kingdom co-founded AUKUS with Australia and the United States.
In 2022, the United Kingdom signed defense pacts with Finland and Sweden in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
Also in 2022, the United Kingdom and Mauritius began talks about who owns the Chagos archipelago.
In 2023, Japan and the UK signed a Reciprocal Access Agreement allowing each other to deploy troops in each other's countries.

Key People in British Diplomacy

Here are some important diplomats who shaped Britain's foreign policy:

Earl of Clarendon (1800–70): He was the foreign secretary several times between 1865 and 1870.
1st Earl Granville (1773–1846): A diplomat known by different titles during his career.
2nd Earl Granville (1815–1891): A Liberal politician and diplomat. He was known for peacefully managing Britain's foreign relations from 1870–74 and 1880–85, working with Prime Minister Gladstone.
Lord Palmerston (1784–1865): A Whig/Liberal foreign minister or prime minister for many years between 1830 and 1865.
Lord Salisbury (1830–1903): A Conservative foreign minister and/or prime minister for many years between 1878 and 1902.
Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914): A Liberal Unionist Secretary of State for the Colonies from 1895 to 1903.