History of the United States government facts for kids

The United States government has a long and interesting history, starting way back in 1776! It's all about how the country's main government, called the federal government, was formed and how it has changed over time. This includes everything from the Constitution (the rulebook for the country) to the President, Congress (where laws are made), and the Supreme Court (which interprets laws). It also covers how new government groups were created, what jobs the government took on, and how new laws were made from 1776 until today.

The United States became independent in July 1776 with the Declaration of Independence. After the American Revolutionary War, the first government was set up under the Articles of Confederation in 1781. But these didn't work very well, so the U.S. Constitution was created in 1787. This Constitution is still the main rulebook for the U.S. government today! Many of the government's first traditions and ways of doing things were started by George Washington when he was president in the 1790s.

Big changes happened again in the 1830s during the Jacksonian Era. The way the president's office worked changed, and the national bank was closed. There was also a serious disagreement called the Nullification crisis about high taxes on imported goods. South Carolina even threatened to leave the U.S., but the problem was solved. Later, in the 1860s, the issue of slavery caused 11 states to leave and form their own government, the Confederate States of America. The American Civil War stopped them from leaving, and they eventually rejoined the U.S.

Another time of major reforms was the Progressive Era. During this time, people gained the right to directly elect their senators, and the government started to control businesses more. Even more changes came with the New Deal policies during the Great Depression. Programs like Social Security were created to help people. After World War II, the U.S. focused on the Cold War with other countries. At home, the civil rights movement worked to gain equal rights for all Americans. In the 21st century, the September 11 attacks led to big changes in how the government was organized and how it dealt with other countries.

Early Government: Articles of Confederation (1776-1789)

The Second Continental Congress became the first independent government of the United States. This happened when it declared independence from Great Britain on July 4, 1776. It was a temporary government and helped create the Articles of Confederation. The Continental Congress then became the Congress of the Confederation when the Articles were approved by all 13 states on March 1, 1781.

Under the Articles of Confederation, Congress was the only part of the government that made laws. Each state sent two to seven members, but each state only got one vote. The federal government could make treaties, form alliances, and declare war. But it needed at least nine states to agree to these actions. States were not allowed to have their own armies during peacetime, but they all had to keep a militia (a citizen army).

The Articles of Confederation asked states to provide money and soldiers when Congress needed them. However, there was no way to force states to do this, so they often didn't. To change the Articles, all 13 states had to agree, which was very hard. Also, Congress often didn't have enough members present to make decisions. Congress chose a leader, often called the "president," but this person only had administrative duties and no real power.

In the 1770s, Congress used special boards to handle government tasks. These included boards for war, money, and the navy. Later, in 1780, Congress changed this system. They created specific offices like the Secretary of Foreign Affairs and the Superintendent of Finance.

Shaping the Nation: The Federalist Era (1789-1801)

Creating the Constitution (1789)

State leaders met at the Constitutional Convention in 1787. They first planned to just change the Articles of Confederation. But they soon decided to write a completely new Constitution. The Constitution of the United States was written and approved. It started on March 4, 1789. This Constitution set up a presidential system with separation of powers. It created three branches of government that are still used today.

The power to make laws was given to the United States Congress. Congress has two parts: the United States Senate (where each state has equal representation) and the United States House of Representatives (where states are represented based on population). At first, House members were directly elected, but senators were chosen by state legislatures. Congress was given many powers, and most laws needed a simple majority vote from both parts of Congress.

The President of the United States was given the power to carry out laws, handle foreign affairs, and manage the federal government. The president also had the power to veto (reject) laws passed by Congress. Congress could overrule a veto with a two-thirds vote from both parts. The Supreme Court of the United States was given judicial power. Its judges are chosen by the president and approved by the Senate. Congress could also create lower courts.

George Washington's Presidency (1789-1797)

The new government didn't start right away because not enough members of Congress arrived. The votes for president were counted on April 6, 1789. George Washington became the first president on April 30. His time as president saw the start of the first political parties: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party. There were still arguments about the Constitution. So, ten amendments were added in 1791, known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments protect many rights, like freedom of speech, the right to keep and bear arms, and states' rights.

The three main government departments from before were restarted. They became the United States Department of State (for foreign affairs), the United States Department of War (for military), and the United States Department of the Treasury (for money). The job of Attorney General was created in 1789 to be Washington's legal advisor. In 1791, Washington started meeting with the heads of these departments. This group became known as the presidential cabinet.

The Department of State handled both foreign matters, like dealing with other countries, and domestic matters, like keeping government records. The military was also reorganized. The Continental Army was replaced by the United States Army in 1796. The building of a U.S. Navy fleet was approved in 1794. The president was also given power over state militias in certain situations.

The Department of the Treasury was set up to manage the country's money. It took on the states' debts and started selling government bonds. Taxes were also collected to fund the government. The United States Revenue Cutter Service was created in 1790 to enforce customs laws. The Post Office was also established. The First Bank of the United States, the country's first national bank, was created in 1791. The Philadelphia Mint, where coins are made, was established in 1792.

The federal court system, including the Attorney General, was set up in 1789. Washington chose John Jay to be the first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court had six justices at first. In 1793, the Supreme Court made an important decision in Chisholm v. Georgia. It ruled that states could be sued by citizens from other states. This led to the Eleventh Amendment in 1794, which said states could not be sued in federal courts by citizens of other states.

The number of members in the House of Representatives was set at 105 in 1792. The Senate started holding public meetings in 1794. The first federal criminal laws were made in 1790. Washington, D.C. was chosen as the nation's capital in 1790. The U.S. also started making treaties with other countries and Native American groups. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee became states during Washington's time as president.

John Adams' Presidency (1797-1801)

When John Adams became president, he kept most of Washington's cabinet members. The Department of the Navy was created in 1798. The United States Marine Corps was also established within the Navy Department. In 1800, the federal government officially moved to Washington, D.C. The Library of Congress was also created then.

Foreign policy was shaped by the XYZ Affair in 1798 and a small naval war with France called the Quasi-War. The Logan Act was passed in 1799 to stop private citizens from negotiating with foreign governments. The Marine Hospital Service was created in 1798. The Department of War also made changes in case of war with France.

In 1798, the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts were passed. These laws made it harder for immigrants to come to the U.S. They also gave the president power to imprison or deport non-citizens. And they made it a crime to criticize the government in ways that were considered false. These laws were very unpopular. Most of them were removed or expired when Adams' term ended. Only the "Alien Enemy Act" is still in effect today.

Growth and Change: Jeffersonian Era and Era of Good Feelings (1801-1825)

Thomas Jefferson's Presidency (1801-1809)

After the 1800 elections, the Federalist Party lost much of its power. The Democratic-Republican Party took control of the federal government. Thomas Jefferson became president and replaced Federalist leaders with people from his own party. But he didn't fill every job with political allies. Jefferson believed in a strong republican government that focused on farmers and equal rights. His ideas became known as Jeffersonian democracy. These ideas guided the government for many years.

After the close presidential elections of 1796 and 1800, it was clear that the Constitution's way of electing presidents needed fixing. Before, each elector cast two votes, and the person with the second most votes became vice president. The Twelfth Amendment was added in 1804. It changed the process so that the president and vice president are elected separately.

The power of the courts grew during this time. In 1803, the Supreme Court made a very important decision in Marbury v. Madison. It said that the Supreme Court could decide if a law passed by Congress was constitutional. This is called judicial review. The Supreme Court also made other rulings about federal power. For example, it ruled that the president cannot ignore laws passed by Congress.

Foreign policy was focused on staying neutral during the Napoleonic Wars in Europe. The U.S. tried to avoid taking sides between France and the United Kingdom. But the United Kingdom's actions, like stopping American ships, led to the Embargo Act of 1807. This law banned U.S. exports. The ban was later reduced to just France and the United Kingdom. The U.S. also fought the First Barbary War.

Jefferson's party was cautious about having a large standing army. They wanted to reduce the military. Several laws were passed to shape military policy. The Military Peace Establishment Act set up the military's structure and created the U.S. Military Academy at West Point. The Insurrection Act of 1807 allowed the president to use military force to stop rebellions. The Militia Act of 1808 provided federal money for state militias. The Office of Indian Trade was created in 1806 to manage trade with Native American tribes.

In 1803, the U.S. bought the Louisiana Purchase, which doubled the size of the country. Jefferson then sent the Lewis and Clark Expedition to explore this new land. Ohio became a state that same year. In 1804, Samuel Chase became the only Supreme Court justice to be impeached, though he was not removed from office. The first government science agency, the United States Survey of the Coast, was created in 1807.

James Madison's Presidency (1809-1817)

James Madison was a close ally of President Jefferson. He continued many of Jefferson's policies. However, the U.S. stopped being neutral and declared war on the United Kingdom, starting the War of 1812. During the war, the British attacked and burned Washington D.C. in 1814. This forced the U.S. government to temporarily move.

The American military was not ready for a major war. The War Department struggled, and its leaders had to resign. In contrast, the Navy did well during the war. After the war, the Navy was improved. The U.S. economy shifted towards protectionism with the Tariff of 1816. This tariff aimed to limit imports from other countries. The First Bank of the United States closed in 1811. So, the Second Bank of the United States was created in 1816 as the new national bank.

The Supreme Court again showed its power in 1816. In Martin v. Hunter's Lessee, it said that it had authority over state courts in matters of federal law. Two more states joined the U.S. during Madison's presidency: Louisiana in 1812 and Indiana in 1816.

James Monroe's Presidency (1817-1825)

During James Monroe's time as president, political parties became less important for a while. The Federalist Party almost disappeared. Most government officials joined together under one party. This time was called the Era of Good Feelings. Monroe was reelected almost without opposition. The U.S. economy faced its first major financial crisis, the Panic of 1819. In response, the government changed how it sold land.

Monroe and Secretary of State John Quincy Adams created an important foreign policy called the Monroe Doctrine. This policy stated that the U.S. would oppose any European countries trying to interfere in the Americas or create new colonies in the Western Hemisphere. Monroe also worked to improve relations with the United Kingdom after the War of 1812. The U.S. also fought the First Seminole War in Florida and then bought Florida from Spain.

The Supreme Court further clarified the powers of states versus the federal government. In McCulloch v. Maryland, it ruled that the federal government had "implied powers" and that states could not interfere with federal programs. It also ruled that states could not regulate trade between states.

Five states were added during Monroe's presidency: Mississippi in 1817, Illinois in 1818, Alabama in 1819, Maine in 1820, and Missouri in 1821. Missouri's admission caused a big debate about slavery. The Missouri Compromise was eventually reached to balance slave and free states.

A New Era: Jacksonian Democracy (1825-1849)

John Quincy Adams' Presidency (1825-1829)

The Era of Good Feelings ended after the 1824 presidential election. The Democratic-Republican Party split, starting the Second Party System. Supporters of John Quincy Adams formed the National Republican Party. Supporters of Andrew Jackson formed the Democratic Party. Adams continued the Monroe Doctrine. The U.S. also strengthened ties with Latin American countries.

The Post Office created a dead letter office in 1825. The Tariff of 1828 was a very controversial law that put high taxes on imports. It was criticized for hurting the economies of southern states.

Andrew Jackson's Presidency (1829-1837)

Andrew Jackson's presidency was a major turning point for the U.S. government. Jackson believed that people shouldn't stay in government jobs for too long. When he became president, he replaced many federal officials. His opponents said he was just filling the government with his political friends. Jackson's opponents formed the Whig Party. The Supreme Court further defined federalism in 1833. It ruled that the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments.

The U.S. government faced a big challenge with the nullification crisis in 1832. South Carolina threatened to ignore a federal tariff law. This could have led to a major crisis and threatened the unity of the country. The federal government prepared for conflict, but a compromise was reached. After this, the U.S. moved away from high tariffs.

Many parts of the government were reformed during Jackson's presidency. The Post Office became a cabinet-level department. The Bureau of Pensions was created in 1832. The Supreme Court was expanded with two new justices, bringing the total to nine. The Department of State was reorganized into several bureaus. The Commissioner of Patents was established in 1836.

The Jackson administration was harsh towards Native American populations. It forced about 60,000 Native Americans to move from their homes in what became known as the Trail of Tears. This included the Second Seminole War. The Supreme Court ruled on tribal sovereignty in 1832, but it did little to stop the removals. Congress also officially recognized the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1832.

Jackson was very involved in the country's money policies. He strongly opposed national banks, believing they were corrupt. In 1832, he vetoed a bill to renew the national bank's charter. This started a big political fight called the Bank War. Jackson moved the national bank's money to state banks. He allowed its charter to expire in 1836. Jackson also required federal land to be bought with silver and gold, not banknotes. His money policies are often blamed for the Panic of 1837.

Two states were admitted during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837.

Martin Van Buren's Presidency (1837-1841)

Martin Van Buren supported President Jackson and continued his policies. This was especially true for economic policy and the forced removal of Native Americans. The Panic of 1837 began when banks ran out of hard currency. The Van Buren administration worked to create an Independent Treasury to replace state and national banks.

The U.S. had diplomatic conflicts with the United Kingdom over border disputes with Canada. Tensions also grew with Mexico because the U.S. supported the Republic of Texas, which Mexico claimed.

In 1838, the U.S. Mint opened new branches. The Postmaster General ended postal service on Sundays, a policy that continues today. In 1839, Congress created an agricultural division within the Patent Office.

William Henry Harrison and John Tyler's Presidencies (1841-1845)

President William Henry Harrison died just one month into his term. This caused a big question: what would Vice President John Tyler do? Tyler decided he would become the full president, setting a new standard for presidential vacancies. The government was often in chaos during Tyler's presidency. This was because Tyler disagreed with his own party, the Whigs, and often used his veto power. Tyler's disagreements with Congress led to the first impeachment proceedings against a president, but he was not impeached.

The U.S. worked to improve relations with the United Kingdom. The Webster–Ashburton Treaty resolved a border dispute between Maine and Canada. The Treaty of Wanghia established ties between the U.S. and China in 1845. The Independent Treasury System was ended during Tyler's presidency. The Department of the Navy was greatly expanded. The United States Naval Observatory was established, and steamships were adopted.

Florida became a state in 1845.

James K. Polk's Presidency (1845-1849)

The idea of manifest destiny, which meant expanding westward, was very strong under President James K. Polk. This led to the Texas annexation and the Mexican–American War. By the end of Polk's term, the U.S. had claimed most of the present-day Southwestern United States.

The United States Naval Academy opened in 1845. The Independent Treasury was restarted in 1846. The Smithsonian Institution was established in 1846 as the U.S. National Museum. The United States Life-Saving Service was created in 1848. The Department of the Interior was established in 1849. It combined several existing offices. The Post Office began issuing federal postage stamps in 1847.

Texas became a state in 1845, Iowa in 1846, and Wisconsin in 1848.

Division and War: Antebellum and Civil War Era (1849-1865)

Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore's Presidencies (1849-1853)

The main concern for the federal government in the 1850s was slavery and the new lands gained from Mexico. President Zachary Taylor tried to avoid the issue. His successor, Millard Fillmore, enforced the Compromise of 1850. This compromise set boundaries for western states and territories. It also decided the status of slavery in new lands and included the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850. This act increased tensions between the North and the South over slavery.

Potential conflict with the United Kingdom was resolved in 1850. Relations between the U.S. and France were strained. Tensions also rose with Spain over Cuba. Fillmore also organized the Perry Expedition which led to the opening of relations with Japan.

Coinage was reformed in 1853, reducing the amount of silver in U.S. currency. The Department of the Interior, created just before Taylor's presidency, began to take shape.

California became a state in 1850 as part of the Compromise of 1850.

Franklin Pierce's Presidency (1853-1857)

President Franklin Pierce's time in office marked the end of the Second Party System. The Third Party System began to form. The Democratic Party lost influence, and the Whig Party disappeared. The Republican Party became a major political force. The Republican Party was formed because of the Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854. This act basically canceled the Missouri Compromise. It led to violent conflict over slavery in the Kansas Territory.

The executive branch saw reforms that were a step towards the civil service system. The Army and Navy were expanded. The U.S. stopped recognizing foreign currencies as legal tender in 1857. The Statistical Office was created within the Department of State in 1854.

The Gadsden Purchase happened in 1854, completing the current borders of the Contiguous United States. The Guano Islands Act was also passed, claiming several uninhabited islands. Conflict between the U.S. and the United Kingdom over Central America grew. Tensions with Spain also rose. In Japan, the U.S. ended the country's isolation with the Convention of Kanagawa.

James Buchanan's Presidency (1857-1861)

Two days after James Buchanan became president, the Supreme Court made a ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford. It said that the rights in the Constitution did not apply to people of African descent. Buchanan was criticized for not doing enough about the growing issue of slavery. Other events, like John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry, further increased the debate over slavery. After Abraham Lincoln was elected, 11 states declared their independence from the U.S. They formed the Confederate States of America in 1861.

The Mountain Meadows Massacre happened in 1857. Buchanan ordered the Army to occupy the Utah Territory and remove the Mormon leader Brigham Young. This led to the Utah War. U.S. foreign policy continued to focus on Central America. The U.S. also strengthened ties with China.

The Buchanan administration was criticized for being very corrupt. The Covode Committee found widespread corruption. The Panic of 1857 began after a major financial company failed. This also divided the North and South. At the end of his presidency, Buchanan signed the Morrill Tariff into law, starting a new period of high tariffs.

The Government Printing Office was established in 1861. Three states were admitted during Buchanan's presidency: Minnesota in 1858, Oregon in 1859, and Kansas in 1861.

Abraham Lincoln's Presidency (1861-1865)

The American Civil War began in 1861 between the United States and the states that had left to form the Confederacy. The Confederacy created its own constitution and government. Many members of Congress from Southern states left to join the Confederate Congress. No country officially recognized the Confederacy as a real nation. The U.S. considered it an illegal rebellion.

The Confiscation Act of 1861 allowed the federal government to take any property that could help the South in the war, including enslaved people. The Confiscation Act of 1862 gave the president the power to free enslaved people. Slavery was made illegal in Washington D.C. in 1862. Lincoln used his power to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. This order legally ended slavery in the South on January 1, 1863. As the Civil War ended, the Freedmen's Bureau was created to help with reconstruction. On April 15, 1865, Lincoln became the first president to be assassinated.

The first military draft in the U.S. was established in 1862. To help the war effort, Lincoln was allowed to suspend habeas corpus in 1863. This meant people could be held without being charged with a crime. Hundreds of citizens were detained for supporting the Confederacy. U.S. foreign policy during the Civil War aimed to prevent other countries from helping the Confederacy. The Navy started using hospital ships during the war.

The Civil War led to big changes in how the government collected money. The first federal income tax was created in 1861. It was later changed to be a progressive tax, meaning higher earners paid a higher percentage. A Commissioner of Internal Revenue was created to collect taxes. The U.S. also started using new types of paper money. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing was established in 1862 to print banknotes. A new national bank system was created in 1863.

The Department of Agriculture was established in 1862, though it was small at first. The Morrill Act of 1862 created land-grant universities. The National Academy of Sciences was founded in 1863. The Yosemite Grant was approved in 1864, setting aside land that would become Yosemite National Park. This was the first time federal land was set aside for conservation and tourism. The judicial branch was expanded with a tenth Supreme Court justice.

West Virginia became a state in 1863, staying in the Union after Virginia left. Nevada became a state in 1864.

Rebuilding the Nation: Reconstruction Era (1865-1877)

Andrew Johnson's Presidency (1865-1869)

As the Civil War ended, the main issue was how to bring the rebellious states back into the Union. In 1865, President Andrew Johnson gave pardons to most Confederates. Four Reconstruction Acts were passed between 1867 and 1868. These laws set rules for reconstruction and readmission. The states that had tried to leave were put under military control. To rejoin the U.S., they had to write new constitutions that allowed all men to vote. They also had to approve the Fourteenth Amendment. Tennessee had already rejoined in 1866. The other states gradually rejoined over the next two years.

Two of the three Reconstruction Amendments were passed during Johnson's presidency. The Thirteenth Amendment was approved in 1865. It made slavery illegal in the U.S., except as punishment for a crime. The Fourteenth Amendment was approved in 1868. It defined citizenship, guaranteed equal protection under the law, and addressed other issues related to the end of slavery. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was also passed. It was the first civil rights law in the U.S., confirming that all citizens were protected equally.

Johnson was a Democrat who ran with Republicans. His presidency led to conflict with Congress, which was mostly Republican. Johnson vetoed 15 bills, but Congress overrode his vetoes. The Tenure of Office Act was passed in 1867 to limit the president's power to remove officials. Johnson ignored the law, which led to the first impeachment trial of a U.S. president. Johnson was found not guilty by one vote.

The U.S. helped end the French-controlled empire in Mexico. The Expatriation Act of 1868 was passed. It said that citizens had the right to give up their citizenship. This was in response to other countries claiming that American immigrants still owed them loyalty.

The federal court system was changed in 1866. The number of Supreme Court justices was to be reduced from ten to seven. In 1866, the Supreme Court ruled that the Lincoln administration's use of military courts for citizens was unconstitutional. In 1868, the Supreme Court ruled that all citizens have a right to move between states without penalty.

In 1865, new House committees were created to handle money matters. Besides the readmitted states, Nebraska became a state in 1867. The Alaska Purchase was completed in 1867, transferring Alaska from Russia to the U.S.

Ulysses S. Grant's Presidency (1869-1877)

The Fifteenth Amendment was approved in 1870. It legally guaranteed that race could not stop someone from voting. After this, groups like the Ku Klux Klan used violence to stop African-Americans from voting. In response, Congress passed laws to give the federal government power to stop electoral violence and discrimination. The Amnesty Act was passed in 1872. It allowed former Confederate soldiers to hold office.

The Grant administration became known for corruption and scandals. Many scandals happened, like the Whiskey Ring and the Crédit Mobilier scandal. Grant himself was often not involved and sometimes didn't even know about them. To fight corruption, Grant created the United States Civil Service Commission. This group regulated how federal employees were hired.

After efforts to make the Attorney General a full-time job, the Department of Justice was established in 1870. This included the office of Solicitor General. The Weather Bureau was created in the same year. The office of Surgeon General was established in 1871. The Post Office Department became a cabinet-level department in 1872.

Money policy in the 1870s focused on dealing with the economic effects of the Civil War. It also dealt with the Panic of 1873. The Coinage Act of 1873 ended silver as legal money. This controversially moved the U.S. away from using both gold and silver (bimetallism) to just a gold standard. This led to the "free silver" movement, which was a big political issue for decades.

The U.S. did not fight any major wars under Grant. However, there were small conflicts, like a military conflict with Korea in 1871. Grant tried to annex Santo Domingo, but other parts of the government stopped it. The U.S. and the United Kingdom resolved disputes from the Civil War through international arbitration in 1872. This set an early standard for international law.

There was more focus on developing the Western U.S. in the 1870s. Laws were passed to encourage mining and land development. Yellowstone National Park was established as the world's first national park in 1872. The Naturalization Act of 1870 set rules for becoming a citizen. The Page Act of 1875 banned Chinese women from entering the U.S. This effectively ended the country's long-standing policy of open borders.

The Judiciary Act of 1869 set the number of Supreme Court justices at nine. The Supreme Court ruled that the Bill of Rights did not apply to state governments, though this was later changed. New Year's Day, Independence Day, Thanksgiving, and Christmas became the first four federal holidays in 1870. Colorado became a state in 1876.

Industrial Growth and Reform: The Gilded Age (1877-1897)

Rutherford B. Hayes' Presidency (1877-1881)

President Rutherford B. Hayes's presidency began with the Compromise of 1877. The results of the 1876 presidential election were disputed. It was agreed that Hayes would become president if he ended military control of the Southern states. This helped white supremacist groups gain power in the South. The debate over political appointments also grew under Hayes. He wanted to end the "spoils system" (giving jobs to political supporters) and create a civil service system.

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877 happened early in Hayes' presidency. When it threatened national security, Hayes ordered federal troops to end the strike. In response, the president's power to use the military in domestic conflicts was limited by the Posse Comitatus Act in 1878. Using both gold and silver for money was briefly brought back in 1878. The United States Geological Survey was established in 1879. The Post Office Department made major reforms to fight corruption.

The Supreme Court made its first ruling on religious freedom in 1879. It said that religious duty was not an excuse for a crime. The Supreme Court also ruled that excluding jurors based on race was against the right to due process. Washington's birthday became a federal holiday in 1879.

James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur's Presidencies (1881-1885)

James A. Garfield was elected president with Chester A. Arthur as vice president. Arthur was chosen to please a group that opposed civil service reform. After Garfield's assassination, Arthur promised to continue reforms. In 1883, the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act ended the spoils system. It created a permanent civil service system in the federal government. This marked a shift towards oversight by commissions instead of individual leaders. The Immigration Act of 1882 put a tax on immigration and limited who could immigrate. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 banned all people of Chinese descent from immigrating to the U.S.

The government had a large surplus of money. Many big spending projects were started, including building new Navy ships. The Depression of 1882–1885 happened gradually during Arthur's presidency. In 1883, the Supreme Court ruled that the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments could not be applied to private citizens in certain cases.

Grover Cleveland's First Presidency (1885-1889)

After the death of his vice president and previous vacancies, Congress updated the Presidential Succession Act in 1886. It changed the line of succession to include cabinet members instead of Congressional leaders. The process of counting electoral votes was also updated.

The Department of Agriculture became a cabinet-level department in 1889. The Marine Hospital Service was reorganized. Regulating transportation was a priority. Congress passed laws to regulate shipping and railroads. Policy towards Native Americans shifted. The Dawes Act gave Native Americans the right to own land individually. The Supreme Court also ruled that Native Americans were part of the U.S. legal system.

The first Board of Fortifications was created in 1885 to improve coastal defenses. Foreign policy mainly dealt with access to waters and fishing rights. The U.S. became accountable for certain civil claims through a law in 1887. In 1886, the Supreme Court ruled that laws enforced in a discriminatory way violated the Fourteenth Amendment, even if the law didn't mention race. Memorial Day became a federal holiday in 1888.

Benjamin Harrison's Presidency (1889-1893)

Economic policy under Benjamin Harrison included increasing the amount of silver in the treasury and raising tariffs. The U.S. also developed its antitrust law with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. This law aimed to prevent monopolies. The Dependent and Disability Pension Act of 1890 created pensions for veterans. A law in 1891 gave the president power to set aside forest reserves as national forests. The Shoshone National Forest became the first national forest.

The U.S. and Germany had a military standoff in 1889, but a storm ended the conflict. The U.S. supported Hawaiian constitutionalists in overthrowing the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1893. Regarding immigration, new laws in 1891 and 1892 further limited immigration to the U.S.

The United States Board on Geographic Names was established in 1890 to standardize place names. The United States courts of appeals were created in 1891 as a new court system. Six states were admitted during Harrison's presidency, more than any other: Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Washington in 1889, and Idaho and Wyoming in 1890.

Grover Cleveland's Second Presidency (1893-1897)

The Panic of 1893 caused an economic depression in the U.S. The law requiring silver in the treasury was repealed in 1894. A law in 1894 lowered tariffs and replaced them with a federal income tax. But the Supreme Court ruled the income tax unconstitutional in 1895. The landmark Supreme Court case Plessy v. Ferguson was decided in 1896. The court ruled that "separate but equal" facilities were allowed, permitting racial segregation in the U.S.

Cleveland again dealt with Hawaii in his second term. A law in 1897 expanded the federal government into food safety by preventing the import of bad tea. The Copyright Office was established in 1897. Labor Day became a federal holiday in 1894. Utah became a state in 1896.

A New Century: Progressive Era and World War I (1897-1921)

William McKinley's Presidency (1897-1901)

The election of William McKinley started the Fourth Party System, with the Republican Party holding much power. In 1898, President McKinley led the U.S. to war with Spain in the Spanish–American War. This war led to Cuba's independence and the U.S. gaining control of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The U.S. also annexed Hawaii that same year. After taking control of the Philippines, the U.S. fought in the Philippine–American War. The U.S. also established the Open Door Policy in 1899, telling European powers not to colonize China. McKinley's foreign policy helped establish the U.S. as a great power.

Economic debates continued to focus on tariffs and the gold standard. A law in 1897 restored high tariffs. The Gold Standard Act of 1900 officially ended bimetallism, making gold the only basis for U.S. money. A tax law in 1898 raised money for the Spanish-American War. The U.S. passed its first environmental law in 1899. In 1898, the Supreme Court ruled that children born in the U.S. to foreign residents are American citizens.

Theodore Roosevelt's Presidency (1901-1909)

Theodore Roosevelt's administration focused on fair business practices. It prosecuted and broke up several large companies for violating competition laws. In 1905, the Supreme Court ruled that the federal government could regulate monopolies. The Hepburn Act gave the administration more power to regulate monopolies. The Food and Drug Administration was created as the first consumer protection agency. The Federal Meat Inspection Act gave the Department of Agriculture power to inspect meat. After a financial panic in 1907, a commission was created to study banking policies.

The United States Department of Commerce and Labor was created in 1903. It combined several offices from other departments. The Department of the Interior's Bureau of Statistics and the Fish Commission were also moved to the new department. New bureaus were created under it, like the Bureau of Corporations and the Bureau of Census.

Roosevelt's administration also focused on protecting nature. The Bureau of Reclamation was created in 1902. The United States Forest Service was created in 1905. The Antiquities Act of 1906 gave the president power to create national monuments from federal lands. Roosevelt established Devils Tower as the first national monument. Roosevelt's policies of corporate regulation, consumer protection, and natural conservation were called the Square Deal.

American foreign policy under Roosevelt was guided by his Big Stick Diplomacy and the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. These policies meant the U.S. would get involved in Latin American affairs and use its modernized Navy to enforce decisions. In 1903, the U.S. supported Panama's independence and made an agreement to build the Panama Canal. The U.S. also leased Guantánamo Bay from Cuba. In 1905, Roosevelt helped end the Russo-Japanese War, earning him the Nobel Peace Prize.

Because of Roosevelt's foreign policy and the U.S. becoming a great power, the military was expanded. Roosevelt focused on expanding the Navy. He sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to show off U.S. naval power. The militia was also reformed in 1903, creating the National Guard.

After President McKinley's assassination, a law in 1903 banned anarchists from immigrating to the U.S. Other laws in 1907 further restricted immigration. A law in 1907 also set ways for citizens to keep or give up their citizenship.

The Tillman Act of 1907 was the first campaign finance law. It made it illegal for companies to donate to political campaigns. Oklahoma became a state in 1907.

William Howard Taft's Presidency (1909-1913)

As Roosevelt's chosen successor, William Howard Taft continued Roosevelt's programs. A law in 1910 strengthened government control over railroad rates. A law in 1910 regulated pesticides for consumer safety. The Bureau of Mines was created in 1910. In 1913, the Department of Commerce and Labor was split into two departments: the Department of Commerce and the Department of Labor. The Department of State was expanded with many new offices.

President Taft used dollar diplomacy. This meant using economic influence instead of military force in foreign affairs. Foreign affairs focused on problems in Latin American countries. Conflict with Nicaragua led to the U.S. occupying the country in 1912. Conflicts from the Mexican Revolution spilled into the U.S.

The Federal Corrupt Practices Act was passed in 1910 and amended in 1911. It set spending limits and required public disclosure of spending in political campaigns. A law in 1912 protected government employees from unfair removal. A law in 1911 made it a crime to share government secrets. The powers of the Speaker of the House were reduced in 1910. The House of Representatives was capped at 435 members in 1911.

New Mexico and Arizona became states in 1912. The Sixteenth Amendment was approved in 1913. It allowed the federal income tax.

Woodrow Wilson's Presidency (1913-1921)

Woodrow Wilson's presidency was dominated by World War I. The war started in 1914, but the U.S. didn't officially join until 1917. It declared war on Germany after attacks on American ships. The U.S. joined the Allies and fought against the Central Powers until 1918. U.S. involvement led to debates at home. The Selective Service Act of 1917 allowed the president to draft citizens into the military. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 made it a crime to interfere with or criticize the war effort. After the war, the American Relief Administration was created to provide aid to Europe.

Before the U.S. entered the war, the military was expanded. The Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps, which was the start of the air force, was created in 1914. The United States Coast Guard was created in 1915 by merging two services. The National Defense Act of 1916 expanded military reserves.

Besides World War I, the U.S. also had conflicts in the Western Hemisphere. The Border War with Mexico escalated. The U.S. also occupied Haiti in 1915 and the Dominican Republic in 1916.

The U.S. began shifting from tariffs to income tax as its main way of getting money. The Federal Reserve was established in 1913. More antitrust laws were passed, including the creation of the Federal Trade Commission. After cars became popular, the first federally funded highway was authorized in 1916.

Three amendments were approved during Wilson's presidency. The Seventeenth Amendment in 1913 allowed citizens to directly elect their senators. The Eighteenth Amendment in 1919 banned alcohol in the U.S., starting the era of Prohibition. The Nineteenth Amendment in 1920 guaranteed women's suffrage (the right to vote).

The National Park Service was established in 1916. The U.S. bought the United States Virgin Islands from the Netherlands in 1917. Standardized time zones were established in 1918.

Prosperity and Depression: Roaring Twenties and World War II (1921-1945)

Warren G. Harding's Presidency (1921-1923)

Warren G. Harding focused on balancing the budget. The Budget and Accounting Act of 1921 created the Bureau of the Budget and the General Accounting Office. New tax laws were passed to fund the government. Harding's administration was influenced by a group of his friends known as the Ohio Gang. This group was involved in corruption, most famously the Teapot Dome scandal.

In 1921, President Harding invited world leaders to the Washington Naval Conference. Several agreements were made to limit naval weapons and maintain peace. Immigration to the U.S. was restricted by the Emergency Quota Act of 1921. This law set limits on how many immigrants could come from different countries. The Sheppard–Towner Act of 1921 provided funding for maternity and childcare. The Cable Act of 1922 gave women rights independent of their husbands.

The Supreme Court clarified how constitutional amendments are approved.

Calvin Coolidge's Presidency (1923-1929)

During Calvin Coolidge's presidency, the U.S. developed plans to help Europe after World War I. The Rogers Act of 1924 combined diplomatic and consular services into one United States Foreign Service. The Immigration Act of 1924 created the United States Border Patrol and banned immigration from Asia. The U.S. granted citizenship to Native Americans with the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924.

The U.S. Board of Tax Appeals was established in 1924. A law in 1926 provided money for federal buildings. The U.S. Numbered Highway System was established in 1926. The Navy was expanded with new ships.

The Supreme Court ruled that the president could remove executive officials. It also defined the "vagueness doctrine" and confirmed Congress's power to delegate authority. The Judiciary Act of 1925 defined which cases the Supreme Court would hear. A law in 1925 created a legal system for arbitration to resolve disputes outside of courts.

Herbert Hoover's Presidency (1929-1933)

Herbert Hoover's presidency was defined by the Great Depression. This economic crisis began after the Wall Street Crash of 1929. High tariffs were greatly expanded, which many believe made the Great Depression worse. President Hoover froze debts related to World War I. A law in 1932 expanded the powers of the Federal Reserve to try to lessen the depression. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation was established in 1932. It created the first public works projects to help the unemployed. The Federal Home Loan Banks were also established to help with housing. Labor rights were expanded.

Other reforms happened too. The Federal Farm Loan Board was reformed. The Laboratory of Hygiene became the National Institute of Health. After a famous kidnapping, kidnapping across state lines was made a federal crime. This gave federal agencies like the FBI power to investigate.

A law in 1929 changed how seats in the House of Representatives were given to each state. The Supreme Court ruled that symbolic speech was protected under the First Amendment. It also ruled that prior restraint (stopping speech before it happens) was forbidden. The Twentieth Amendment was approved in 1933. It changed the schedule for Congress sessions and presidential inaugurations.

Franklin D. Roosevelt's Presidency (1933-1945)

Franklin D. Roosevelt was president for 12 years, longer than any other. During this time, he led the country through much of the Great Depression and World War II. Roosevelt's presidency created the New Deal coalition and started the Fifth Party System. His policies also shaped modern liberalism in the United States.

Roosevelt created a domestic policy program called the New Deal to address the Great Depression. The New Deal was a series of programs, public works projects, financial reforms, and regulations enacted between 1933 and 1936. It greatly increased the size and number of federal programs and agencies. Examples include the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and the Social Security Administration (SSA). These programs helped farmers, the unemployed, youth, and the elderly. The New Deal also put new rules on the banking industry. Many of these programs were challenged in court. Some were upheld, while others were struck down. These cases helped define the broad power of the Commerce Clause.

Nazi Germany started invading neighboring countries, beginning World War II in 1939. The U.S. remained neutral at first, providing limited help to the Allies. After the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the U.S. joined the war against the Axis powers. The War Powers Acts increased the president's power. The G.I. Bill of 1944 provided benefits for war veterans. During the war with Japan, Roosevelt ordered the internment of Japanese Americans. This was upheld by the Supreme Court.

In response to rising violent crime, the National Firearms Act was passed in 1934. It regulated machine guns and other weapons as the country's first federal gun control law. This law was upheld as constitutional. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 changed the policy of integrating Native Americans. A law in 1943 allowed immigration from China again after over 60 years. In relations with Latin America, Roosevelt started the Good Neighbor policy, which reduced U.S. involvement.

The Federal Radio Commission was replaced by the Federal Communications Commission in 1934. It was given more responsibilities. The National Archives and Records Administration was established in 1934. The National Cancer Institute was established in 1937. Fannie Mae was established in 1938. The Food and Drug Administration's powers were greatly expanded by a law in 1938.

The Twenty-first Amendment was approved in 1933, ending Prohibition. In 1936, the Supreme Court ruled that the president has broad power over U.S. foreign relations. In 1944, the Supreme Court ruled that children have rights independent of their parents.

Post-War and Civil Rights: Post-War Era (1945-1963)

Harry S. Truman's Presidency (1945-1953)

Harry S. Truman became president in the final days of World War II. The war in Europe ended in May 1945. In August 1945, Truman ordered the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending the war in the Pacific. President Truman is the only person to ever order an atomic bombing in war. The end of World War II led to the start of the Cold War between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The Korean War began in 1950 as a proxy war between the two countries.

As the Cold War began, U.S. foreign policy shifted to the Truman Doctrine. This focused on stopping the spread of Communism. The U.S. was a founding member of the United Nations, the Organization of American States (OAS), and NATO. The United Nations was created for diplomacy. The OAS was for strengthening relations with Latin America. NATO was a military group to oppose the Soviet Union. The Marshall Plan in 1948 provided billions of dollars to help rebuild Western Europe.

The Cold War led to the second red scare. This was a period of anti-Communist investigations in Congress. The House created the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1945 to investigate those suspected of loyalty to other countries. Senator Joseph McCarthy led investigations in the Senate. His broad accusations became known as McCarthyism.

The U.S. military structure was reorganized by the National Security Act of 1947. This created the Department of Defense. The Department of War was renamed the Department of the Army. The Department of the Air Force was established. These three departments were placed under the Department of Defense. The National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency were also created by this act.

The United States Atomic Energy Commission was established in 1946 to deal with nuclear technology. The National Institute of Mental Health was established in 1949. The National Science Foundation was established in 1950. A law in 1946 made robbery and extortion federal crimes when they affected commerce. The Taft–Hartley Act of 1947 restricted labor unions. After threats of a steel strike in 1952, the government took control of steel mills. Truman argued he had the power to do so, but the Supreme Court ruled against him.

Congress was reformed by a law in 1946. This law streamlined committees, increased staff support, and required lobbyists to register. The Administrative Procedure Act of 1946 set the framework for government departments and agencies. The Presidential Succession Act of 1947 updated the presidential line of succession.

The Twenty-second Amendment was approved in 1951. It limited the president to a maximum of two terms.

Dwight D. Eisenhower's Presidency (1953-1961)

Dwight D. Eisenhower's presidency saw the end of the Korean War. It also saw the start of U.S. involvement in Vietnam as the Cold War grew. The Communist Control Act of 1954 banned Communist organizations in the U.S. When direct military conflict wasn't needed, the U.S. used secret methods to fight Soviet influence. The Cold War started the Space Race in 1955. In 1958, NASA was created, and the Federal Aviation Agency was created.

The Civil Rights Movement began to achieve major victories in the 1950s. The Supreme Court made several rulings against racial segregation, including Brown v. Board of Education. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 and the Civil Rights Act of 1960 provided federal support to enforce desegregation and voting rights. The U.S. reduced financial support for Native American tribes in the 1950s.

The Internal Revenue Code was reformed in 1954. The U.S. began building a large system of federal highways in 1956. This was to help transit and national defense.

The Department of Health, Education and Welfare and the Small Business Administration were established in 1953. The Air Force Academy was established in 1954. In 1960, the Supreme Court ruled that drawing electoral districts in a way that disenfranchises African Americans was unconstitutional. Alaska and Hawaii became states in 1959.

John F. Kennedy's Presidency (1961-1963)

John F. Kennedy was president during a time of rising Cold War tensions. These tensions grew with the Cuban Revolution and the Bay of Pigs Invasion. They reached a peak during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, which threatened nuclear warfare. The U.S. also sent troops to support South Vietnam in the Vietnam War.

The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 created the Agency for International Development for foreign aid. The Peace Corps was established in 1961. The U.S. Navy SEAL teams were established in 1962. In 1963, the U.S., U.K., and Soviet Union negotiated the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.

The Twenty-third Amendment was approved in 1961. It guaranteed the right to vote for citizens of Washington D.C. In 1962, the Supreme Court ruled that federal courts could oversee redistricting. The Equal Pay Act of 1963 made equal pay for equal work a law. The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 reformed mental healthcare. The Post Office Department started using ZIP Codes in 1963.

Social Change: Civil Rights Era (1963-1981)

Lyndon B. Johnson's Presidency (1963-1969)

Lyndon B. Johnson oversaw the Great Society domestic program. This program aimed to expand government programs to improve quality of life. Major progress was made in civil rights. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 made it illegal for the government and businesses to discriminate based on race, color, religion, sex, and national origin. These protections were extended to voting with the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Other achievements included the Older Americans Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1968. These measures were very controversial in the South. They are credited with changing political parties and starting the Sixth Party System.

The War on Poverty included reforms to help the poor. The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 created programs like the Job Corps. The Food Stamp Act of 1964 created the food stamp program to feed the poor. Education reforms were made to make education more accessible. The Department of Housing and Urban Development was established in 1965. The Corporation for Public Broadcasting was established in 1967.

The Great Society and War on Poverty also affected health, transportation, and the environment. The Clean Air Act of 1963 set federal oversight for air quality. Medicare and Medicaid were created in 1965. The Highway Beautification Act of 1965 set rules for highways. The Department of Transportation was established in 1967.

A tax law in 1964 reduced income taxes. The Freedom of Information Act was passed in 1967 to make the government more transparent.

Congress authorized military force in Southeast Asia with the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution of 1964. This allowed the U.S. to enter the Vietnam War. Under President Johnson, U.S. involvement in Vietnam grew. This led to opposition and anti-war protests. The U.S. also participated in the Dominican Civil War in 1965.

The Twenty-fourth Amendment was approved in 1964. It made poll taxes unconstitutional. The Twenty-fifth Amendment was approved in 1967. It addressed presidential succession and filling vice presidency vacancies. In 1963, the Supreme Court ruled that the Sixth Amendment guarantees the right to free legal help for felony charges. In 1964, the Supreme Court ruled that Congressional districts within a state must have similar populations. Columbus Day became a federal holiday in 1968.

Richard Nixon's Presidency (1969-1974)

Richard Nixon oversaw the end of the Vietnam War. He also eased Cold War tensions through a policy of détente. This led to arms control talks. In response to Vietnam, Congress passed the War Powers Resolution in 1973. This limited the president's power to use military force. In 1974, the Nixon administration was involved in the Watergate scandal. This led President Nixon to become the first and only American president to resign from office.

The Department of the Post Office was abolished in 1970. It was replaced by the United States Postal Service. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration was established in 1970. Amtrak was established in 1971.

Money policy under Nixon effectively ended the gold standard. The U.S. moved to a fiat currency (money not backed by a physical commodity). The president was given power to set price controls in 1970.

Many environmental advances were made under Nixon. This included the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency in 1970. Other environmental achievements included the Clean Water Act of 1972 and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. President Nixon started the "war on cancer." In 1969, the U.S. became the first country to put humans on the Moon.

Congressional procedure was reformed in 1970. Federal elections were reformed in 1971. The Twenty-sixth Amendment was approved in 1971. It guaranteed that the minimum voting age could be no higher than 18 years old.

Gerald Ford's Presidency (1974-1977)

Gerald Ford was the only president not elected to the office of president or vice president. He was appointed vice president and then became president when Nixon resigned. As president, Ford continued many of Nixon's policies. In response to the Watergate scandal, many changes were made to increase government accountability. These included laws to preserve presidential records and increase government transparency. The Federal Election Commission was established in 1974. The president's powers in a national emergency were clarified in 1976.

Stagflation (high inflation and slow economic growth) and a recession began before Ford took office. Much of his domestic policy focused on addressing economic issues. Tax reduction laws were passed to help the economy.

Jimmy Carter's Presidency (1977-1981)

Jimmy Carter was president during the 1979 oil crisis and a resulting recession. The Federal Reserve was reformed in 1977. The U.S. Mint began making the Susan B. Anthony dollar in 1979. The Torrijos–Carter Treaties set an agreement to return the Panama Canal to Panama. The U.S. government defined unofficial relations with Taiwan. In 1979, the Iran hostage crisis occurred, where the U.S. embassy in Iran was attacked and people were taken hostage.

The Department of Energy was established in 1977. In 1980, the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare was renamed the Department of Health and Human Services. The United States Department of Education was established as a separate department. The offices of inspector general in various departments were standardized. The Civil Service Reform Act of 1978 abolished the U.S. Civil Service Commission. It replaced it with new agencies. The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court was established in 1978.

Modern Era: Reagan Era and Post-Cold War (1981-Present)

Ronald Reagan's Presidency (1981-1989)

The U.S. government saw major changes under Ronald Reagan. Tax cuts and deregulation were prioritized. This was a shift away from the New Deal principles. Several tax laws were passed to achieve this. Efforts to control certain substances were greatly expanded under President Reagan.

The U.S. began operating under the Reagan Doctrine in the 1980s. This involved building up the American military and taking a strong stance against the Soviet Union. The U.S. provided money to groups fighting Communist governments. The U.S. military invaded Grenada in 1983. The U.S. entered its first free trade agreement with Israel in 1985. A free trade agreement with Canada was established in 1988.

The federal government expanded its power over states with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act. This law required states to pass legal drinking age laws or lose federal funding. The Department of Defense was reformed in 1986. The Veterans Administration became the cabinet-level Department of Veterans Affairs in 1988. The National Archives and Records Administration became an independent agency in 1985. Martin Luther King Jr. Day became a federal holiday in 1986.

George H. W. Bush's Presidency (1989-1993)

The Cold War ended under George H. W. Bush's presidency. The Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991. After Iraq invaded Kuwait, the U.S. government worked with the United Nations. In 1991, the U.S. led a group of countries in the Gulf War, freeing Kuwait. The U.S. also invaded Panama in 1989 to overthrow a dictatorship. The U.S. government expanded civil rights protections for Americans with disabilities with the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. The U.S. experienced an economic recession in the early 1990s.

Bill Clinton's Presidency (1993-2001)

The U.S. experienced an economic boom in the 1990s. Bill Clinton oversaw a reduction in the national debt and created a budget surplus. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was established in 1994, including Mexico. The Internal Revenue Service was reformed in 1998. Internet taxes were banned. A law in 1999 deregulated the finance industry.

Efforts to reduce crime included laws like the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act of 1994. The U.S. led a NATO intervention during the Kosovo War. The "don't ask, don't tell" policy was established in the Department of Defense. It allowed gay and lesbian service members to serve if they kept their sexual orientation private. A law in 1996 denied federal recognition of same-sex marriage.

President Clinton became the second president to be impeached in 1998 following a political challenge.

George W. Bush's Presidency (2001-2009)

The September 11 attacks happened during George W. Bush's presidency. This led to major government reorganization, security reforms, and the war on terror. The Patriot Act greatly expanded the government's anti-terrorism measures. This included more government surveillance. The Transportation Security Administration was created in 2001. The Department of Homeland Security was created in 2002. In response to the attacks, the U.S. invaded Afghanistan in 2001 and overthrew the Taliban government. The U.S. also invaded Iraq in 2003.

Several tax cuts were passed. The No Child Left Behind Act reformed education in 2002. Medicare Part D was established in 2003. Near the end of Bush's presidency, the Financial crisis of 2007–2008 began, leading to the Great Recession. Laws were passed to respond to the crisis.

Barack Obama's Presidency (2009-2017)

Barack Obama was president during the Great Recession and the War on Terror. Laws were passed to respond to the Great Recession. The U.S. ended its occupation of Iraq in 2011. However, military action continued against the Islamic State. The Affordable Care Act of 2010 reformed healthcare in the U.S. An agreement was made in 2015 to prevent nuclear weapons from spreading. In 2015, the Supreme Court ruled that the right to marry is guaranteed to same-sex couples.

Donald Trump's Presidency (2017-2021)

Donald Trump oversaw tax cuts in 2017. The Internal Revenue Service was reformed in 2019. The North American Free Trade Agreement was replaced by the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement in 2020. In 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic caused widespread shutdowns. Several laws were passed in response to the pandemic. The federal government was shut down twice during Trump's presidency, including the longest shutdown in U.S. history.

President Trump became the third president to be impeached and the first president to be impeached a second time, following political challenges.

Joe Biden's Presidency (2021-present)

The COVID-19 pandemic continued under Joe Biden's presidency. A law was passed in 2021 to respond to the pandemic. The U.S. ended its involvement in Afghanistan in 2021.